
ClassTX-3_£i! 

Book . 1 ^ 4 

Copyright ]^"__ ./^ 2 / 

COP«iIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Burning Liquid Fuel 



A Practical Treatise on the Perfect Combustion 
of Oils and Tars, giving Analyses, Calorific Values 
and Heating Temperatures of Various Gravities 
with Information on the Design and Proper Instal- 
lation of Equipment for All Classes of Service 



BY 

William Newton Best 

Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, Engineer in Caloric, Member 

Am. Ry. Master Mechanics Asso.; Am. Soc. M. E.; Am. Inst. Min. 

and Met. Eng.; Inter. Ry. Fuel Asso.; Am. Inst, of Metals; 

Am. Drop Forge Asso.; Areo Soc. of Am.; Franklin Inst.; 
N. Y. Academy of Sciences; and Petroleum Inst. 



The Burners, Furnaces and Various Installations Described in this Book 
are Fully Protected by Letters Patents. 



New York 

U. P. C. BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 

243-249 West 39th Street 

Nineteen Twenty-Two 



;3 4 



^^ 



V 



V 



Bebicatton 

AS THE YOUNGEST OF A LARGE 
FAMILY IT WAS MY CUSTOAI IN 
CHILDHOOD TO BRING MY EXAM- 
PLES AND COMPOSITIONS TO MY 
BROTHERS AND SISTERS FOR THEIR 
CORRECTION AND APPROVAL SO NOW 
I BRING TO THEM THESE PAGES, 
WHICH REPRESENT THE LABOR OF 
MANY YEARS SPENT IN MAKING EX- 
HAUSTIVE TESTS, LESS CONFIDENT 
OF THEIR APPROVAL, BUT MORE FUL- 
LY APPRECIATING THEIR LOVE. TO 
THESE DEAR ONES WHO, EACH 
IN THEIR OWN WAY, AIDED AND 
ENCOURAGED ME IN MY CHOSEN 
CALLING, I AFFECTIONATELY DEDI- 
CATE THIS BOOK. 



First Edition 

Copyright, 1913, 

By 

WILLIAM NEWTON BEST 

Revised and Enlarged Edition 

Copyright, 1922, 

By 

U. P. C. BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 



FEB -2 '2? 



b:' 



^ 



f 



•w^C I 



FORE^A^ORD 

Dear Friend Best: 

As the general subject of Petroleum, and particularly the 
fuel feature of the problem, has strongly appealed to me for the 
past thirty years, it was with exceeding interest and professional 
profit I read the advance proof sheets of your valuable and prac- 
tical treatise on the efficient combustion of oils and tars. 

Your distinct fitness to write upon this important subject will 
be recognized by our leading engineering experts, not only by 
reason of your broad experience as regards oil fuel matters but 
likewise due to the varied, progressive and successful results ac- 
complished by you along that line. 

During the extended series of boiler tests conducted by the 
Navy (1901-1904) with both coal and oil as a combustible, it was 
you who first distinctly and strikingly called attention to the im- 
portance and necessity of providing a very mai'ked increase in the 
volume of combustion chamber with the use of oil as a fuel. It 
has been development in this direction which constitutes one of 
the distinct advances obtained in burning oil more efficiently and 
safely as well as in very materially increasing the outi3ut of boiler 
capacity. 

There were other important features of the problems of 
safely, uniformily, efficiently and rapidly burning oil which were 
suggested and emphasized by you, and which have since been uni- 
versally adopted. 

The Navy as well as the Nation is therefore indebted to you 
for the far-reaching military and engineering counsel you render- 
ed your country in promoting the successful development of the 
oil burning furnace — an achievement of importance whether 
viewed from an industrial, maritime or strategic standpoint. 

As our economic advance may very materially influence our 
future welfare, it is fittingly supplementary to your other impor- 
tant accomplishments, that you should now give to the engin- 
eering world of this nation a Treatise that tells of the most pro- 
gressive manner in which fuel oil, one of the important products 
of our most distinct national asset, should be handled and con- 
sei^ed. 

With affection and esteem, I am sincerely, 

(Signed) JOHN R. EDWARDS, 

Rear Admiral U. S. N. Ret. 
Dr. W. N. Best, F.R.S.A., Consulting Engineer, 
11 Broadway, New York. 



PREFACE 

The wisest man who ever lived upon this earth stated that right- 
eousness exalteth a nation. Both history and ruins prove the 
truth of this statement. The greatest asset of any corporation is 
its reputation, for this reveals the character of its officials ; hence, 
the necessity for producing goods of 100% quality. Scientific books 
benefit their readers only in proportion to the amount of truth 
which they contain, for science is truth. Often theory is termed 
science, but eventually it must give way to truth. The author has 
read hundreds of works only to find them disappointing both as to 
their statements and applications. The illustrations and data con- 
tained in this book are, however, based only on facts. 

In 'the compilation of this edition of the Science of Burning 
Liquid Fuel the author has given data which cover all the various 
forms of equipment. This has been obtained from thousands of 
actual tests, and is the result of knowledge gleaned from more than 
thirty-three years' experience in the burning of oil and tar. 

The language used is plain. It will be readily understood by 
professors and students of public schools, technical schools or uni- 
versities ; the mechanic or consulting engineer ; the heater or 
forger of metals ; the melter or superintendent of a foundry ; the 
draftsman or a works manager; the superintendent or president 
of a manufacturing concern; and the metallurgist or the chemist. 

The equipment shown are not mere photographs of the outside 
but give interior construction. They have been selected from the 
42,000 installations in successful operation and reveal the most 
modern application of liquid fuel so as to obtain CO^ therefrom 
(perfect combustion of fuel) . The general construction and the 
principles on which the installations were based are different from 
all others. This edition contains data, tables and illustrations which 
are invaluable to multifarious branches of manufacture, transpor- 
tation, etc. 

These tabulated results of tests are surprising if we consider only 
the calorific value of coal and oil, but due allowance must be made 
for all phases and varieties of service. 

We hope we have made clear the absolute necessity of thoroughly 
atomizing the oil, as well as the use of a burner that will not car- 
bonize. It is also necessary to use a burner that will make a flame 
that will fit the combustion chamber or fire-box to which it is ap- 



4 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

plied as perfectly as a drawer fits an opening in a desk. I cannot 
conceive how anyone could expect a round flame to fit a flat surface 
any more than one could expect a carpenter to fit a round drawer 
to an oblong opening in a desk. Such a thing is impossible. The 
flame must be made to fit perfectly. 

As a lover of Youth I wish to make the statement that you can 
never succeed in this world unless you love your particular calling. 
It has been well said that "He who aspires must perspire." Genius 
is 90 per cent, work and 10 per cent, concentration. Knowledge is 
Power. You will find work to be your best friend, and in your 
life's calling you can be successful only in proportion to the amount 
of intelligent effort that you put forth in making your contribution 
to the world. My hope is that you will let the world know that it 
has been made better because you, the reader of this book, have 
lived in it. 

In my life's work I am encouraged very much by the following 
poem by Rudyard Kipling : — 

L'ENVOI 

"When Earth's last picture is painted, and the tubes are twisted 

and dried. 
When the oldest colours have faded, and the youngest critic has died, 
We shall rest, and faith, we shall need it — lie down for an seon 

or two, 
Till the Master of All Good Workmen shall set us to work anew! 

"And those that were good shall be happy; they shall sit in a 

golden chair; 
They shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of comets' 

hair; 
They shall find real saints to draw from — Magdalene, Peter and 

Paul; 
They shall work for an age at a sitting and never be tired at all ! 

"And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall 

blame ; 
And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame ; 
But each for the joy of the working, and each, in his separate star, 
Shall draw the Thing as he sees It for the God of Things as They 
are!" 

W. N. Best. 
July, 1921. 



Table of Contents 

Chapter I pace 

Early Experiences 7 

Chapter II 
Liquid Fuel — Its Origin, Production and Analysis 15 

Chapter III 
Atomization 33 

Chapter IV 
Oil Systems 39 

Chapter V 
Refractory Material 69 

Chapter VI 
Locomotive Equipment 72 

Chapter VII 
Stationary and Marine Boilers 84 

Chapter VIII 
Low Pressure Boilers and Hot Air Furnaces 129 

Chapter IX 
Commercial Gas Industry Equipment 135 

Chapter X 
Sugar Industry Equipment 142 

Chapter XI 
Steel Foundry Practise 152 

Chapter XII 
Heat-treating Furnace Practise 171 

Chapter XIII 
Malleable Iron, Grey Iron and Brass Foundry Practise . . . 194 

Chapter XIV 
Modern Forge Shop Practise 216 

5 



6 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

Chapter XV page 

Boiler Manufacturers' Furnace Equipment 243 

Chapter XVI 
Copper Industry Equipment 264 

Chapter XVII 
Enameling Equipment 269 

Chapter XVIII 
Chemical Industry Equipment 272 

Chapter XIX 
Ceramic Equipment 283 

Chapter XX 
Lime Industry Equipment 286 

Chapter XXI 
Cement Industry Equipment 291 

Chapter XXII 
Dryers and Ore Roasters 295 

Chapter XXIII 
Bread and Cracker Oven Equipment 306 

Chapter XXIV 
Chocolate Industry Equipment 312 

Chapter XXV 
Oil and Tar Still Equipment 314 

Chapter XXVI 
Incinerator Equipment 318 

Chapter XXVII 
Glass Industry Equipment 32o 

Chapter XXVIII 
Combustion Engineering 332 



Chapter I 
EARLY EXPERIENCE 

The author of this book began the study of liquid fuel while 
Master Mechanic and Superintendent of the Los Angeles Electric 
Railway in the year 1887. We used the Daft system of electricity. 
This system had previously operated an electric railway in Boston, 
Mass. They, however, did not have the overhead wire, but used the 
third rail system. Ours was the first overhead system of electric 
railroad in the United States, if not in the world. A view of the 
electric motor car then used on this road is here given. You can 
also see the first electric locomotive with two trailers attached. It 
may be of interest to here state that after building the Myrtle 
Avenue branch of this road (which was a branch of the main line to 
Pico Heights) , I reported to the Board of Directors that we should 
purchase motor cars for the branch line and not use the electric 
locomotive and trailers, because the latter was more costly to 
operate, but I also made the statement that in a few years electric 
locomotives would be used instead of steam locomotives in certain 
branches of work and for that service they would be better than 
electric motor cars. This portion of my report caused considerable 
merriment as there were grave doubts in the minds of many as to 
the fulfilment of this prophecy. 

The boilers to which I first applied oil as fuel were the "Hazel- 
ton," and manufactured in New York City. The burners, if such 
they could be called, were made of gas pipe, and produced a round 
flame. These were soon changed to the flat type by simply flatten- 
ing the pipe in a blacksmith's forge so that the nozzle would, in 
a measure, produce a flat flame, but which in reality produced a 
very uneven, irregular flame. The steam and the oil passed out 
in the same direction through the one orifice, which often resulted 
in much carbon forming therein, and necessitated the apparatus 
being removed quite frequently in order to remove the carbon 
which collected in the mouth piece. The equipment was exceed- 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




EARLY EXPERIENCE 9 

ingly crude. I have since thought it was even more crude than 
the oil we were attempting to burn. We were, however (after 
much experimenting) , able to get the normal rating of the boiler, 
but several months passed before this was accomplished. The oil 
was very heavy, being between 14 and 18 gravity Baume and of 
asphaltum base. While endeavoring to obtain information from 
those in the Eastern States and in Russia who claimed to have 
burned oil, I found that they were laymen in the art of burning 
the new fuel, and that I would have to put out to sea without any 
compass to guide me. 

We obtained our supply of crude oil from wells in the Puente 
fields about 30 miles from Los Angeles. Often it was reported that 
the supply was about exhausted and at times we were not sure of 
getting enough for our requirements. Again, too, the coal interests 
were endeavoring to protect themselves from inroads by the oil 
company, which made the consumer doubly careful. A number 
of firms installed oil fuel upon their boilers but had difficulty with 
the elements of the boiler being injured or with not being able to 
maintain the required steam pressure. Thus becoming disgusted 
with the new fuel, nearly all of these firms returned to the use of 
coal, believing that the kind of crude oil which we had in southern 
California was not commercially a success as a fuel. The author, 
however, was never discouraged, but was alert to each new de- 
velopment in the changes of brick work, different locations of the 
burner and the air openings through which the air could enter to 
effect combustion until he became convinced that it was the fuel 
of the twentieth century. In order to obtain satisfactory results 
I realized that it had to be scientifically burned and that careful 
consideration was necessary in order to achieve the highest effi- 
ciency and the strictest economy. After thirty-three years of study, 
I take pleasure in giving to the world some of the results achieved 
by the use of this incomparable fuel. 

After we had had the new fuel in service for several years other 
manufacturers became impressed with the fact that the California 
crude oil could be successfully burned and began to adopt it as a 
fuel. 

The first locomotive I endeavored to equip was while I was Mas- 
ter Mechanic of the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway. Many, 
many were the discouragements encountered before success 
crowned our efforts and demonstrated that crude oil was a God- 



10 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




EARLY EXPERIENCE 11 

send to both the engineer and fireman as this fuel increased the 
tonnage of the locomotive fully 15 per cent, over coal, and they 
could maintain the steam pressure at just belov^^ the limit required 
to prevent steam escaping through the pop valves. So success- 
ful was it on this road that I received a call to another road which 
had attempted but failed to burn this fuel. It was while Super- 
intendent of Motive Power and Machinery of this road (The Los 
Angeles Terminal Railway, which afterwards became the Los An- 
geles & Salt Lake Railroad) that I invented my own burner. The 
locomotive which carried my first locomotive burner is shown 
in Fig. 2. I had tried every form and type of burner up to that 
time and saw imperfections of construction and operation which 
I strove to obviate by making a burner foreign to all others. 

My experience in burning liquid fuel in furnaces began while 
I was Superintendent of the California Industrial Company^'s 
Rolling Mill in Los Angeles. We manufactured commercial iron 
(bar iron of all sizes and shapes) from scrap iron and soft steel. 
Many people have stated that oil cannot successfully weld iron and 
steel, while others, who have successfully used oil as fuel, state 
that oil is the only fuel for this class of work as it does not change 
the nature of the metal. As we had only scrap iron and soft steel 
to make the bar iron from, and as crude oil was our only available 
fuel, it was necessary to weld it perfectly; and, without fear of 
contradiction, will say that no better iron can be made than that 
produced with oil fuel, as oil, when properly used, is a purifier of 
metals. 

Since leaving the Rolling Mill I have installed oil burners and 
supplied designs for the construction of nearly every form of 
furnace including the following: Annealing, asphaltum mixers, 
babbitt heating, bolt making, brass melting, brazing, bread ovens, 
etc., brick and art tile kilns, case hardening, cast iron melting, 
cement kiln rotary, channel iron heating, chocolate bean roasters, 
continuous heating, copper plate, core drying, crematories, cru- 
cible brass melting, crucible steel melting, drop forge work, enamel- 
ing, flue welding, glass lehrs, glass melting, incinerators, indirect- 
fired, japanning ovens, ladle heating, locomotive steam raising, 
locomotive tire heating, malleable iron, mould drying, ore smelting, 
plate heating, pipe bending, pipe flange welding, portable torches, 
rivet making, rolling mill work, rotary kilns, shaft and billet heat- 
ing, sand drying, sheet steel heating, steel melting, steel mixers, tar 



12 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

stills, tempering, welding scrap iron, wire annealing, wire making. 
This book will show some of the different installations and the re- 
sults obtained therefrom. 

The burning of liquid fuel is a science. It can be burned either 
wastefully or economically. In order to obtain the highest pos- 
sible efficiency and strictest economy from any installation the oil 
system must be installed and operated upon scientific principles. I 
am aware that many articles have been published on oil burning. 
Some have contained much valuable information, while others it 
has simply been a waste of time to read, because of the fact that 
the writer himself was not familiar with the subject. Several 
years ago I read an article on the different methods of burning 
oil and when I visited the city in which the author resided I called 
upon the gentleman, for I desired to ask him several questions on 
points not clear to me. This man acknowledged that he had never 
burned a gallon of oil in his life and that his article was simply a 
compilation of reports on tests made by others, he not even having 
been present at any of the tests. The burners described in his 
treatise all seem to fit perfectly and operate without the slightest 
difficulty. The equipment which he described reminded me of an 
artist's girl friend who, in describing the ability of the artist, 
stated that one of the portraits which she painted of a gentleman 
was so perfect that it had to be shaved twice a week. My point is 
that if a man wishes to write a treatise on welding iron he should 
first learn how to make a weld himself, for some time he is liable 
to meet a man from Missouri "who will want to be shown," and 
Mr. Author might then be humiliated because of his imaginary 
ability. Theory is needed, but without practical knowledge it is like 
faith without works — it is dead. To say the least, it is disappoint- 
ing, especially in regard to the subject of heat, which we have been 
studying for centuries and by the knowledge of which we have 
raised ourselves above the brute creation and the Stone Age. A 
short time ago while addressing some students I asked, "What is 
the propelling power of a steam locomotive?" They thought long 
and hard, and at last after mentioning almost eveiy part of the 
locomotive one student in desperation said "Heat," which of course 
is the propelling power of a steam locomotive. 

While it is not possible for an engineer in calorics to tell you 
how many gallons of oil are required to run a locomotive over a 
division of a railroad without knowing her tonnage and the average 



EARLY EXPERIENCE 13 

grades, or to tell you how much oil a burner will burn without 
having full particulars in regard to installation, or to even guess 
how much oil will be used in a furnace without knowing its exact 
form and proportions, temperature required, the size and quantity 
of metal to be heated in the furnace per hour or per day, yet he 
should have such a knowledge of his business and the capacity of 
the oil burner that he can recommend an installation which will not 
prove a farce. If it is a copper refining furnace (such as is de- 
scribed in this book) he should know the size of burner required, 
the amount of air needed to reduce and refine a given charge of 
such metal, or if an annealing furnace he should be capable of 
figuring out the graduated size and location of heat ports neces- 
sary to give an even distribution of heat throughout the entire 
length, width and height of the furnace. I consider that a man is 
simply playing or guessing who first installs three or four oil 
burners in a furnace and then if they do not give the required 
heat, installs three or four more. This is not the intelligent way 
of solving an engineering problem. It is simply the old "rule of 
thumb." 

I have been asked if every man or firm makes a success of burn- 
ing liquid fuel. To this I always answer "No. Many cannot burn 
oil successfully." The next inquiry is "Why not?" My answer is 
"Some men cannot learn to play the piano, others the harp. Some 
women are good cooks but cannot sew, and vice versa. Many 
men cannot burn coal or wood advantageously, and therefore I 
can frankly make the statement that many cannot learn how to 
burn liquid fuel." I have been often amused at men wanting to 
run tests on boilers and furnaces, using all the different types of 
burners which they can borrow for the occasion. The men con- 
ducting the tests never having had any theoretical or practical 
experience in the burning of oil or tar, their efforts are not a com- 
pliment to any of the burners. The result is as absurd as though 
two men, neither of whom had ever previously shot off a gun, 
were to institute a shooting contest, borrowing as many weapons 
as they could from the various gun manufacturers, assuring them 
that the result of the contest would be of great advantage to the 
firm that was fortunate enough to win in the contest. Let me 
assure the reader that the man who has never shot off a gun (or 
the man who has never operated a burner) had better become 
familiar with their construction and operation before exhibiting 



14 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

the results of the contest, otherwise there might be some people 
who would not consider their efforts a criterion, and if their state- 
ment is incorrect they might have to meet the result of said de- 
cision in after years. I have known officials to be discharged be- 
cause they selected an inferior article and after years had elapsed, 
another test with one of the same burners revealed the fact that 
the superior device had been rejected at the first test, resulting 
in irreparable loss to their firm of hundreds of dollars in fuel and 
thousands of dollars in output. Under such circumstances any 
man should be dismissed for incompetency. The most dangerous 
man on earth is an egotistical "Jack of all trades." Personally 
I would just as soon give my watch to be cleaned or repaired to 
a man who has never repaired one as to give a burner to an in- 
experienced man to run one of these so-called tests. 



Chapter II 

LIQUID FUEL— ITS ORIGIN, PRODUCTION 
AND ANALYSIS 

"The origin of petroleum is still shrouded in mystery.'' 

Humboldt expressed the opinion that it is derived from deep- 
seated strata ; Karl Reihenbach that it had its origin through heat 
action on turpentine, etc., etc. 

The various theories propounded are divided by the scientific 
world into two groups, namely: those ascribing to petroleum an 
inorganic origin, and those regarding it as the result of the de- 
composition of organic matter. 

M. P. E. Berthelot in 1866, after many experiments, suggested 
that mineral oil was produced by purely chemical action; while 
Mendeleheff ascribed its formation to the action of water at high 
temperature, on iron carbide in the interior of the earth. A near 
analogous theory to this is the one lately advocated by Eugene 
Coste, who ascribed its origin to solfatara volcanism. 

On the other hand overwhelming opinions are adduced favoring 
the organic origin. Among those favoring the decomposition of 
both animal and vegetable marine organism may be cited J. P. 
Lesley, E. Orton and S. F. Peckham, while others have held that 
it is exclusively of animal origin. This view is supported by such 
an occurence as that of the Trenton limestone, and also by the 
experiments of C. Engler, who obtained a liquid crude petroleum 
by the distillation of menhaden (fish) oil. 

Similarly there is a difference of opinion as to the condition 
under which the organisms have been mineralized, some holding 
that the process has taken place at a high temperature; while 
others, because of the lack of practical evidence, have concluded 
that petroleum, like coal, has been formed at moderate temperature 
and under pressure varying with the depth of the containing rocks. 

Consideration of the evidence leads us to the conclusion that at 
least in commercially valuable deposits, mineral oil has generally 
been formed by the decomposition of marine organism; in some 
cases animal, in others vegetable ; in others both under practically 



16 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



Surf-ace. 

'ietiowCt^Y 

Cad rT«<r r^r 5<}no^- 
Bfu^e C/^y 

Orjvel 

BI^Ad^Y 

Sand *vt(h py r/fe. 

S/ue Cl4Y— 

//»c SftndL 



Grey SancC 

Saffiima. Stone. • 

Cr^yClay , 

Hard Sands fane.-. 

Qy^y Sjnd. 

HardSind. 

Croy Clay._ 

Hir'd$indsfon9. 



Gr&iCf<iY 

f/<ifyd SdhcL ^ 

GrdiCUy ^ttt% ^ 

CiU^re.oos ConereticmS 

White ^Helts 

Crcy Clay 

Cr«y C/rf/ ^t. 

HardSandsi-ane 

Fim^'f Sa-noL - 
H<irdCUyin€lGv»n 

C a fareoos Conerettani 
W/M /a y ers cu.5an4- 

Gai dndOiL 

Sihd Mii(id with 

Cdye rn ovs Dohtnite- 
OlL 



SturfA-Ce 



2>xy §^njC 

<?a5 

OuSand, 
Terf exited. 



Pum.t>Tvi/TtJ. 



pZrfem-ed. 



tS>iL 







Fig. 



3. Two logs showing geological formations or sands in which 
oil is found. 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 



17 




18 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



normal conditions of temperature and pressure; and also in some 
to solfatara volcanism. 

We are indebted to Capt. Anthony F. Lucas, who brought in 
the great gusher at Spindletop, Beaumont, Texas, in January, 
1901, for the cut of the gusher, and also for the above article. 

Oil was first discovered in the United States in 1859 at Titus- 




No. 5. Col. Drake's Well at Titusville, Pa. 



ville. Pa. During the first year only 2,000 barrels (42 gallons 
each) were produced. Since then each succeeding year the pro- 
duction and demand have increased until the world's consumption 
now aggregates 1,000,000 barrels a day. In the year 1911 the 
United States alone produced 220,440,391 barrels, or 63.80% of 
the total world production. 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 



19 



PETROLEUM PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1859-1918, 
IN BARRELS OF 42 GALLONS 



Year 


Pennsylvania 
and New York 


Ohio 


West 
Virginia 


California 


Kentucky and 
Tennessee 


Prior to 1908.. 
1908 


BBLS. 

687,425,409 
10,584,453 
10,434,300 
9,848,500 
9,200,673 
8,712,076 
8,865,493 
9,109,309 
8,726,483 
8,466,481 
8,612,885 
8,216,655 


BBLS. 

366,250,105 

10,858,797 

10,632,793 

9,916,370 

8,817,112 

g8,969,007 

8,781,468 

8,536,352 

7,825,326 

7,744,511 

7,750,540 

7,285,005 


BBLS. 

185,039,718 

9,523,176 

10,745,092 

11,753,071 

9,795,464 

12,128,962 

11,567,299 

9,680,033 

9,264,798 

8,731,184 

8,379,285 

7,866,628 


BBLS. 

201,965,825 
44,854,737 
55,471,601 
73,010,560 
81,134,391 

h87,272,593 
97,788,525 
99,775,327 
86,591,535 
90,951,936 
93,877,549 
97,531,997 


BBLS. 

5,276,578 
e727,767 


1909 


e639,016 


1910 

1911 


e468,774 
e472,458 


1912 

1913 


e484,368 
e524,568 


1914 


e502,441 


1915 

1916 

1917 


e437,274 
1,203,246 
3,100,356 


1918 


4,376,342 




788,202,717 


463,367,386 


294,474,710 


1,110,226,576 


18,213,188 



Year 


Colorado 


Indiana 


Illinois 


Kansas 


Texas 


Prior to 1908.. 
1908 


BBLS. 

8,874,285 
379,653 
310,861 
239,794 
226,926 
206,052 
188,799 
222,773 
208,475 
197,235 
121,231 
143,286 


BBLS. 

90,127,511 

3,283,629 

2,296,086 

2,159,725 

1,695,289 

970,009 

956,095 

1,335,456 

875,758 

769,036 

759,432 

877,558 


BBLS. 

28,866,683 
33,686,238 
30,898,339 
33,143,362 
31,317,038 
28,601,308 
23,893,899 
21,919,749 
19,041,695 
17,714,235 
15,776,860 
13,365,974 


BBLS. 

a42,357,150 
1,801,781 
1,263,764 
1,128,668 
1,278,819 
1,592,796 
2,375,029 
3,103,585 
2,823,487 
8,738,077 
36,536,125 
45,451,017 


BBLS. 

117,819,991 
11,206,464 


1909 


9,534,467 
8,899,266 


1910 


1911 


9,526,474 


1912 . 


11,735,057 


1913 


15,009,478 


1914 


20,068,184 


1915 


24,942,701 
27,644,605 


1916 


1917 . . . 


32,413,287 


1918 


38,750,031 








11,319,370 


106,105,584 


298,225,380 


148,450,298 


327,550,005 



20 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

PETROLEUM PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES— Con^J 



Year 


Oklahoma 


Wyoming 


Louisiana 


Montana 


Olhpr 


Prior to 1908 


BBLS. 

1)45,084,441 

45,798,765 

47,859,218 

52,028,718 

56,069.637 

51,427,071 

63,579,384 

73,631,724 

97,915,243 

107,071,715 

107,-507,471 

103,347,070 


BBLS. 

c85,785 

fl7,775 

£20,056 

£115,430 

£186,695 

1,572,306 

2,406,522 

3,560,375 

4,245,525 

6,234,137 

8,978,680 

12,596,287 


BBLS. 

27,413,511 

5,788,874 

3,059,531 

6,841,395 

10,720,420 

9,263,439 

12,498,828 

14,309,435 

18,191,539 

15,248,138 

11,392,201 

16,042,600 


BBLS. 


BBLS. 

d21,471 
d 15, 246 


1908 




1909 




d5,750 


1910 




d3,615 


1911 




d7,995 


1912 




1913 




il0,k3 
J7.7P2 

j 14,265 
j7,705 

kl0,300 
k7,943 


1914 




1915 




1916 

1917 

1918 


44,917 
99,399 
69,323 








851,320,457 


40,019,573 


159,769,911 


213,639 


112,925 



ANNUAL PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF PETROLEUM FOR THE UNITED 

STATES 



Year 


United States 


Total Value 


Prior to 1908 

1908 

1909 


BBLS. 

1,808,608,463 
178,527,355 
183,170,874 
209,557,248 
220,449,391 
222,935,044 
248,446,230 
235,762,535 
281.104,104 
300,767,158 
335,315,601 
355,927,716 


$1,657,113,275 
129,079,184 

128,328,487 


1910 


127,899,688 


1911 

1912 


134,044,752 
164,213,247 


1913 ... 


237,121,388 
214,125,215 
179,462,890 


1914 

1915 


1916 

1917 

1918 


330,899,868 
522,635,213 
703,943,961 




4,608,571,719 


$4,528,867,168 



a — Includes Oklahoma in 1905 and 19Do. 

b — Production for 190.5 and 1906 included in IZansas. 

c — Includes Utah in 1907. 

d— Michigan and Missouri. 

e — No production recorded for Tennessee. 

f — Includes Utah. 

g — Includes Michigan. 

h — Includes Alaska. 

i — Alaska, Michigan, Missouri and New Mexico. 

j — Alaska, Michigan and Missouri, 
k — Alaska and Michigan. 

I am indebted to the Department of the Interior, I' 
for the above data. 



ited States Geological Survey, 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 



21 



SUMMARY OF PRODUCTION BY FIELDS 



Field 


Preliminary 

Estimates 

1919 


Final 

Figures 

1918 


Appalachian 


29,232,000 

3,444,000 

12,436,000 

115,897,000 
67,419,000 
13.575,000 
20;568,000 
13,584,000 

101,564,000 

377,719,000 


25 401 466 


Lima-Indiana 


3,220,722 
13,365,974 

148,798,087 
17,280,612 
13,304,399 
24,207,620 
12,808,896 
97,531,997 


Illinois . 


Mid-Continent: 

Oklahoma-Kansas 


Central and North Texas 


North Louisiana 


Gulf Coast 


Rocky Mountain 










6355,927,716 



a — Average of figures collected by the Standard Oil Company and the Independent Producers' Agency. 

b — Including 7,943 barrels produced in Alaska and Michigan. 

We are indebted to the Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, for the above data. 





January- July, inclusive, 1919 


FieU 


Total 


Daily Average 


Appalachian 

Lima — Indiana and Southwest Indiana. . 


17,462,000 
2,076,000 
7,496,000 

63,243,000 
36,005,000 

6,840,000 
11,712,000 

8,025,000 
59,390,000 


82,368 

9,792 

35,359 

298,316 
169,835 
32 264 


Mid-Continent : 






Gulf Coast . .... 


55,245 

37,854 

280,142 


Rocky Mountain 


California , 




212,249,000 


1,001,175 





July, 1920 


Jan.-July, inclusive, 1920 


Field 


Total 


Daily 

Average 


Total 


Daily 
Average 


Appalachian 

Lima — Indiana and South- 


2,613,000 

275,000 
925,000 

12,919,000 
5,912,000 
3,293,000 
2,296,000 
1,603,000 
8,583,000 


84,290 

8,871 
29,839 

416,742 
190,709 
106,226 
74,065 
51,710 
276,871 


17,165,400 

1,751,000 
6,386,000 

85,857,000 
38,845,000 
20,473,000 
13,751,000 
9,646,600 
58,706,000 


80,589 

8,220 
29,981 

403,085 
182,371 
93,117 
64,559 


Ilhnois 


Mid-Continent: 

Oklahoma-Kansas 

Central and North Texas . . 

North Louisiana 

Gulf Coast 




45,289 


California 


275,615 




38,419,000 


1,239,323 


252,581,000 


1,185,826 



22 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



ESTIMATED PRODUCTION 
OF CRUDE PETROLEUM FOR 1919 

Production of Petroleum in the United States in Barrels (Exclusive of Petroleum cOTisumed 
on leases and of producers' stocks, except in California). 



Field 


January 


February 


March 


April 




2,420,000 

271,000 

1,094,000 

8,971,000 
5,094,000 
962,000 
1,630,000 
1,085,000 
8,669,000 


2,185,000 
274,000 
940,000 

7,887,000 
4,479,000 

845,000 
1,441,000 

990,000 
7,869,000 


2,453,000 

282,000 

1,166,000 

8,734,000 
4,959,000 
936,000 
1,890,000 
1,168,000 
8,646,000 


2,542,000 




293,000 




1,008,000 


Mid-Continent: 


8,387,000 


Central and North Texas 


4,762,000 
899,000 


Gulf Coast 


1,843,000 


Rockv Mountain 


1,259,000 


California (a) 


8,393,000 




30,196,000 


26,910,000 


30,234.000 


29,386,000 



Field 



Appalachian 

Lima-Indiana 

Illinois 

Mid-Continent: 

Oklahoma-Kansas 

Central and North Texas 
North Louisiana 

Gulf Coast 

Rocky Mountain 

California (a) 



May 



2,652,000 

324,000 

1,120,000 

8,652,000 
4,913,000 
927,000 
1,621,000 
1,139,000 
8,637,000 



June 



2,539,000 

311,000 

1,062,000 

9,910,000 
5,630,000 
1,064,000 
1,521,000 
1,131,000 
8,467,000 



29,985,000 31,644,000 



July 



2,671,000 

321,000 

1,106,000 

10,693,000 
6,168,000 
1,207,000 
1,766,000 
1,253,000 
8,709,000 



33,894,000 



August 



2,474,000 

306,000 

1,040,000 

10,240,000 
6,730,000 
1,286,000 
2,044,000 
1,079,000 
8,663,000 



33.862,000 



Field 



September 



October 



November 



December 



Appalachian 

Lima-Indiana 

Illinois 

Mid-Continent : 

Oklahoma-Kansas 

Central and North Texas 
North Louisiana 

Gulf Coast..... 

Rocky Mountain 

California (a) 



2,489,000 
277,000 
877,000 

10,976,000 
6,369,000 
1,304,000 
1,796,000 
1,169,000 
8,410,000 



2,513,000 

279,000 

1,061,000 

10,764,000 
6,219,000 
1,262,000 
1,543,000 
1,054,000 
8,621,000 



2,064,000 

247,000 

1,033,000 

10,408,000 
6,107,000 
1,249,000 
1,715,000 
1,137,000 
8,154,000 



2,230,000 
259,000 
926,000 

10,266,000 
5,989,000 
1,634,000 
1,758,000 
1,120,000 
8,326,000 



33,667,000 



33,319.000 



32,114,000 



32,508,000 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 

WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PETROLUEM IN 1918 AND 
SINCE 1857, BY COUNTRIES 



23 





Production, 1918 


Total Production, 1857-1918 


Country 


Bbls. of 
42 Gallons 


Percentage 
of Total 


Bbls. of 
42 Gallons 


Percentage 
of Total 


United States 


355,927,716 

63,828,327 

40,456,182 

13,284,936 

8,730,235 

b8,000,000 

7,200,000 

5,591,620 

c2,536,102 

2,449,069 

2,082,068 

2,079,750 

1,321,315 

711,260 

304,741 

190,080\ 

35,953/ 


69.15 

12.40 

7.86 

2.58 

1.70 

1.55 

1.40 

1.09 

.49 

.48 

.40 

.40 

.26 

.14 

.06 

.04 


4,608,571,719 

285,182,489 

1,873,999,199 

188,388,513 

151,408,411 

106,162,365 

14,056,063 

154,051,273 

24,414,387 

38,498,247 

7,432,391 

4,848,436 

4,296,093 

16,664,121 

24,425,770 

317,8231 

973,671 i 

19,167 

397,000j 


61.41 
3.89 

24 97 


Russia 


Dutch East Indies (a) 
Rumania . . . 


2.51 
2 02 


India 


1 41 


Persia 

Galicia 


.19 
2.05 


Peru 


.33 


Japan and Formosa. . 
Trinidad 


.51 
.10 


Egypt 


.07 


Argentiua 

Germany 

Canada 


.06 
.22 
.33 


Venezuela 




Italy 

Cuba 


.02 


Other Countries 


















514,729,354 


100.00 


7,504,107,138 


100.00 



a — Includes British Borneo. 

b — Estimated. 

c — Estimated in part. 

I am indebted to the Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, for the above data 

At this time the oil fields of Mexico are attracting a great deal 
of attention because of their magnitude. The proven territory 
of oil-producing land in Mexico is considered by many scientists 
the most valuable fields on this planet, and those who have carefully 
examined the fields and ate competent to judge prophesy that that 
country will produce more oil than the combined production of all 
other sections of the world. The Mexican oil is high in calorific 
value per gallon, and is especially adapted for fuel in its crude state 
but not for refining. It is therefore fortunate that these fields have 
been discovered in order to supply the growing demand for crude 
oil, but I believe that other new fields will be discovered and de- 
veloped with the ever-increasing demand until every coal-producing 
country will have an abundant supply of petroleum. The crude oil 
of Russia, Rumania and Borneo has approximately the same calo- 



24 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



rific value as that of the Beaumont fields in Texas, while the oil thus 
far discovered in Argentine Republic, Chile and Peru is of approxi- 
mately the same calorific value and gravity as the California 
petroleum. 

Of the total production last year (1920), the United States 
supplied 443,402,000 barrels, or 64.4 per cent. Mexico produced 
159,800,000 barrels, or 23.2 per cent, of the world's output. By 
far the greatest gains were made by this country and Mexico. 
United States production increased from 877,719,000 barrels in 
1919 to 443,402,000 barrels in 1920, and Mexico increased its pro- 
duction from 87,072,954 barrels to 159,800,000 barrels. The esti- 
mated production, in barrels, by countries, follows: 



1920 



1919 



United States 

Mexico 

Russia (estimated) . 
Dutch East Indies . 

India 

Rumania 

Persia 

Galicia 

Peru 

Japan and Formosa 

Trinilad 

Arg3ntina 

Egypt 

Franco 

Venezuela 

Canada 

Germany •. . 

Italy 

Total 



443,402,000 


377,719,000 


159,800,000 


87,072,954 


30,000,000 


34,284,000 


16,000,000 


15,780,000 


8,500,000 


8,453,800 


7,406,318 


6,517,748 


6,604,734 


6,289,812 


6,000,000 


6,255,000 


2,790,000 


2,561,000 


2,213,083 


2,120,500 


1,628,837 


2,780,000 


1,366,926 


1,504,300 


1,089,213 


1,662,184 


700,000 




500,000 


321,396 


220,000 


220,100 


215,340 


925,000 


38,000 


38,254 


688,474,251 


554,505,048 



The above figures have been compiled by the American Petroleum Institute, to which I am indebted 

There are two kinds of oil or petroleum, one having parafiine 
base and the other asphaltum base. Either may be used as fuel 
in its crude state, but both are largely distilled in order to obtain 
the more volatile oils such as gasoline, benzine, kerosene, etc. The 
residue is called Fuel Oil and is used in every class of service where 
coal, coke, wood or gas can be used. It has proven a most superior 
fuel because the operator has the fire under perfect control at all 
times and can attain and maintain the heat required. 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 25 

The analysis of Fuel Oil is as follows: 

Carbon 84.35% 

Hydrogen 11.33% 

Oxygen 2.82% 

Nitrogen 60% 

Sulphur 90% 

Gravity, from 26 to 28 Baume. Weight per gallon, 7.3 pounds. 
Vaporizing point, 130 degrees Fahr. Calorific Value varies from 
18,350 to 19,348 B.t.u. per lb. 

Analysis of Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil: 

Carbon 84.60% 

Hydrogen 10.90% 

Sulphur 1.63% 

Oxygen 2.87% 

Gravity, 21 Baume. Weight per gallon, 7.5 lbs. Calorific value, 
19,060 B.t.u. per lb. Vaporizing point, 142 deg. Fahr. 

California oil varies in gravity from 12 to 36° gravity Baume. 
Analysis of California Crude 0:1 (14 to 16° gravity Baume) : 

Carbon 81.52% 

Hydrogen 11.01% 

Sulphur 55% 

Nitrogen and Oxygen 6.92% 

Weight per gallon, approximately 8 lbs. Calorific value, approxi- 
mately 18,550 B.t.u. per lb. Vaporizing point, 230 deg. Fahr. 

Mexican Topped Oil runs approximately 14° to 16° gravity 
Baume, and vaporizes at 175 °F.; but the bottom oil or the oil 
that is left near the bottom of the earthen reservoir varies in 
gravity from 11° to 12° Baume and vaporizes at from 205° to 
210 °F. The weight of this bottom oil is approximately 8.2 lbs. per 
gallon. 

Analysis of Mexican Topped Crude Oil (Tampico Fields) : 

Carbon 82.83% 

Hydrogen 12.19% 

Oxygen 43% 

Nitrogen 1.72% 

Sulphur 2.83% 

Weight per gallon, approximately 8 lbs. Calorific value, approxi- 
mately 18,490 B.t.u. per lb. Vaporizing point, 175 deg. Fahr. 

Note: — The British unit cf heat, or British thermal unit (B.t.u.;) herein referred to. is that 
quantity of heat which is required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of pure water 1 degree 
Fahrenheit at 39 degrees Fahrenheit, the temperature of maximum density of water. 





London 


Carbon 


77.53 


Hydrogen 


6.33 


Nitrogen 


1.03 


Oxygen 


14.50 


Sulphur 


.61 



26 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

Oil tar is a by-product of the water gas system used in numerous 
gas works. Coal tar is a by-product from coke oven benches. When 
either of these tars are heated sufficiently to reduce their viscosity 
they are a most excellent fuel. Per pound their calorific value is 
less than that of oil, but as they weigh from 9.5 to 10 pounds per 
gallon, while fuel oil only weighs 7.3 pounds per gallon, their 
calorific value per gallon is greater than that of fuel oil. Oil tar 
has a calorific value of 16,970 B.t.u. per pound or 161,200 B.t.u. 
per gallon, while that of coal tar is 16,260 B.t.u. per pound or 
162,600 B.t.u. per gallon. 

Analysis of London Tar and Tar from Dominion Coal : 

Dominion 

81.50 
5.68 

12.45 
.37 



Comparison between Oil and Coal or other Fuels in Various Services 

From data secured as a result of hundreds of tests and in order 
to show the value of liquid fuel in various forms of equipment, I 
give the following data which will furnish food for thought and 
which may prove beneficial to manufacturers in this and foreign 
countries. It can easily be seen that one cannot estimate the 
value of fuel oil by computing its calorific value without knowing 
the service to which the fuel is to be applied. So many engineers 
fail in their estimates simply because they have never run tests 
in burning liquid fuel against coal fuel. When using liquid fuel 
one can attain and maintain perfect combustion, but of course this 
cannot be done while burning bituminous coal. 

In marine service using mechanical burners it requires 180 
gallons of oil to represent a long ton (2,240 pounds) of coal having 
a calorific value of 14,000 B.t.u. per pound. In tug boat service, 
using atomizing burners, it requires 147 gallons of oil to represent 
a long ton of coal. Two tug boats equipped with oil fuel can readily 
perform the same amount of service that three tugs can using 
coal as fuel. 

In locomotive service, using atomizing burners, 180 gallons of 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 27 

oil will represent a long ton of coal. The tonnage of the locomotive 
may be increased 15% immediately after being changed from coal 
to oil. 

In power plants with water tube boilers using atomizing burners, 
it requires 147 gallons of oil to represent a long ton of coal. 

In large forging plants 82 gallons of oil equal a long ton of coal. 
In small drop forging furnaces it requires 62 gallons of oil to 
represent a long ton of coal. 

In heat-treating furnaces with high temperatures 63 gallons of 
oil are equivalent to a long ton of coal. In heat-treating furnaces 
with low temperatures for drawing purposes only 56 gallons of 
oil are required to represent a ton of coal. 

In flue-welding furnaces, welding safe ends of locomotive flues, 
only 58 gallons of oil are required to represent a ton of coal. The 
reason for this is obvious. You cannot make a welding heat with 
a green fire. You must coke your fire and in so doing you not only 
lose the volatile matter from the coal but you also lose iraluable 
time while coking the coal. 

Of course it should be remembered that the bituminous coal 
referred to has always the calorific value of 14,000 B.t.u. per pound, 
and is figured by long ton (2,240 pounds) . 

The oil referred to has a calorific value of 19,000 B.t.u. per 
pound, and weighs 71/2 pounds per gallon. 

31/4 barrels of oil (42 gallons per barrel) are equivalent to 5,000 
pounds hickory or 4,550 pounds of white oak. 

6 gallons of oil represent 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas, the gas 
having a calorific value of 1,000 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 

31/2 gallons of oil equal 1,000 cubic feet of commercial or water 
gas, having a calorific value of 620 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 

21A gallons of oil equal 1,000 cubic feet of by-product coke oven 
gas, having a calorific value of 440 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 

42 gallons of oil equal 1,000 cubic feet of blast furnace gas of 
90 B.t.u. per cubic foot. 

This gas is used in this country in boilers and also in large fur- 
naces but requires coal tar or oil to aid in the keeping up of the 
required horse-power of the boilers, or in furnishing the tempera- 
ture required for the heating furnaces. Oil or coal tar are excellent 
fuels which can be readily used as fuel to operate in conjunction 
with the blast furnace gas in boilers or large furnace practice. 
Usually 10 gallons of coal tar are made from every ton of coal coked 



28 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



in by-product coke ovens. This tar has a calorific value of 162,000 
B.t.u. per gallon and weighs 10 pounds per gallon. 

The following list showing typical value of the various kinds of 
fuel may be of service to the reader : 



Kind 


B. T. U. 

per 

Pound 


Pounds B. T. r. 

per per 
Gallon Gallon 


Liquid: 

Fuel Oil (residuum of Petroleum) 


19,000 
19.060 
19. .500 
18.820 
18,940 
16,120 
13,140 
10,080 
16,260 
16,970 

15,391 
12,141 
10,506 
13,189 
13,000 
5,280 
8,160 
5,120 


7.3 
7.5 
7.6 
7.5 
7.5 
7.2 
5.7 
5.6 
10.0 
9.5 


138,700 
142,950 
147,200 






141,1.50 


Pennsylvania crude petroleum 


142,050 
116,000 




74,900 


Alcohol (90 per cent) 


56,500 


Coal tar 


162,600 


Oil tar 


161,200 


Solid 

Pocahontas coal 




Bituminous coal (Pittsburgh) 






Bituminous coal (Illinois) 










Coke 






Turf (dried) 






Peat ... . 












Gaseous 

Illuminating gas (city coal gas) 

Natural gas 


550 to 650 B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. 
800 to 1,000 B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. 

130 B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. 

440 B. T. U. per Cu. Ft. 


Producer gas 


By-product coke oven gas 





In nearly every country on the face of the globe there are mil- 
lions of tons of coal of very little calorific value that it is almost 
impossible to burn without the aid of some gaseous or liquid fuel. 
Fortunes can be made by utilizing in combination with oil the coal 
and coal products now wasted. For example, in the State of Rhode 
Island there is graphitic coal which has a calorific value of only 
7840 B.t.u. per pound. Owing to the lack of volatile matter it is 
difficult to burn this coal, but with the aid of liquid fuel (as shown 
in Fig. 6) this coal burns readily. 

Pulverized coal is delivered to the hopper and is fed in the man- 
ner shown upon the flat sheet of steam or compressed air produced 
by the oil burner, which carries the pulverized coal through the 
combustion chamber and delivers it as heat into the furnace. The 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 



29 



graphitic coal must of course be dried and pulverized in the usual 
manner. By this method the proper quantity of graphitic coal can 
be delivered to the furnace, using say 20 per cent oil and 80 per 
cent pulverized coal. The flat flame oil burner supplies the oil as 
well as the force for carrying the pulverized coal through the com- 
bustion chamber. (See Fig. 14, page 38.) 

Of course, water gas tar or coal tar can be used instead of crude 
oil if desired. 




/"iofji o»/p/es 



/quijj ri/£L 0A/f/e£ 



Fig. 6. Apparatus for burning liquid fuel in combination with pulver- 
ized coal or graphitic coal in melting, forging or heating furnaces. 



Heat of Combustion 

The chemical combination of a combustible with oxygen disen- 
gages energy in the form of heat. 

The quantity or measure of this heat may be expressed in British 



30 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



thermal units (B.t.u.) or the quantity of heat required to raise the 
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. 

The number of British thermal units released by the combustion 
of one pound of the following substances, and the resultant tem- 
peratures are : 

Hydrogen burned to HoO, 62,032 B.t.u. Temp. 5,898°F. 
Carbon burned to CO., 14,500 B.t.u. Temp. 4,939°F. 

Carbon burned to CO , 4,452 B.t.u. Temp. 2,358°F. 

The great loss of heat due to the incomplete combustion of car- 



<f> 






Thermometer 




SECTION ON C.l: 



TTlTTTm 



T"j 



\ ) 



nose „ ' ' r-i-j— 1 y 






m//ww////m//////ww//m 



Fig. 7. Retort for determining vaporization point of petroleum. 



bon is shown by the difference between the total heat of perfect 
combustion of carbon to C0„ (14,500 B.t.u.), and that of carbon to 
CO (4,452 B.t.u.) 

One pound of carbon when imperfectly burned produces ll+i^ — 
2y^ pounds of carbon monoxide. 

If this quantity of gas is burned to carbon dioxide the total 



LIQUID FUEL PRODUCTION AND ANALYSIS 



31 



amount of heat released will be 14,500 — 4,452=10,048 B.t.u.; there- 
fore the calorific value of one pound of carbon monoxide ia lo.o^ s 

2-1/3 

=4,312 B.t.u. 

Testing Instruments 




Steam is used in the lower chamber of the re- 
tort shown in Fig. 7. The top opening is 
covered with a piece of cardboard having an %" 
opening therein. When the steam has heated the 
oil so that vapor is seen passing out of this small 
opening in the cardboard cover, a temperature has 
been reached which is known as the vaporizing 
point of the oil. When vapor is thus visible, the 
oil has been heated to the temperature at which 
when burned, it gives an intermittent fire. A 
thermometer is placed on the retort so that the 
temperature of the oil at the vaporizing point 
may be recorded. The oil should be delivered to 
the burner at a temperature three or four de- 
grees lower than the vaporizing point as recorded 
by the thermometer. 

To ascertain the quantity of water contained in 
oil, fill the Water Test Cylinder (Fig. 8) with 
gasoline to the point marked 30 and then add 
crude oil until it reaches the place marked 60 on 
the cylinder. Expose the cylinder with its con- 
tents to the sun for several hours until the gas- 
oline is all evaporated. The percentage of water 
in the oil is that found at the bottom of the cylin- 
der after the gasoline has evaporated. 

In order to ascertain the gravity, fill the glass 

cylinder shown in Fig. 9 with oil and place therein 

the hydrometer thermometer. 

A calorimeter is an instrument used for testing liquid fuel in 

order to find out the number of British thermal units (B.t.u.) 

which it contains. Parr's calorimeter or any other approved make 

should be used. 




Fig. 8 Water 
test cylinder 
used to test the 
oil for water 
content. 



32 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



r\ 




H/DRor^ereH isi^otvif/iTMe/trtoMBTeR -^cjt^e) 



GcASS 

Fig. 9. Glass cylinder and hydrometer thermometei 



Chapter III 
ATOMIZATION 

Thousands of patents have been issued by our Government to 
inventors covering oil or tar atomizers or burners. Many of these 
inventions involve the same principle and all may be grouped in 
three distinct classes, viz. : mechanical, internal mixing and exter- 
nal atomizing. Many people have supposed that by simply mash- 
ing down a piece of pipe and coupling it to a steam or air and oil 




Fig. 10. High pressure, external atomizing oil burner. 

supply line, they have evolved a cheap burner; a burner which, 
in 99 cases out of 100, they have seen working in some other shop. 
They very seldom state just where they have seen it in operation 
and often claim that it is their own invention, and that it only cost 
about fifteen or twenty cents to make. But there is another side 
to be considered. The first cost of an article may be a trifle but 
that is no sign that the article is really cheap. One must consider 
what the device will have cost in time, labor and fuel at the expira- 
tion of a year or more. One of the greatest abuses of liquid fuel is 
the endeavor to use it with burners that do not thoroughly atomize 
the oil and evenly distribute the heat throughout the entire fire- 

33 



34 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

box or the charging space of the furnace. A burner should be of 
such construction that it can be filed or fitted to make a long nar- 
row flame or a broad fan-shaped blaze, fitting the entire length 
and width of a fire-box or furnace as evenly as a blanket covers 
a bed. A burner wherein the base of the fuel carbonizes over the 
fuel passage is absolutely worthless, for it should be capable of 
atomizing any gravity of fuel procurable in the open market with- 
out either clogging or carbonizing, no matter whether it be fuel 
oil of very light gravity or crude oil, oil tar or coal tar. A burner 
is not worthy of consideration unless it enables the operator to 
burn any gravity of liquid fuel, for no manufacturer should be 
limited to the purchase of one particular kind of fuel. There 
should be no internal tubes, needle points or other mechanism 
which will clog, wear away or get out of order readily. Each burner 
should be thoroughly tested so that when it leaves the shop where 
it is made the manufacturer knows that it will fill the requirements 
for which it is being furnished. 

Considering that air contains 20.7 parts oxygen and 79.3 parts 
nitrogen, at 62 deg. Fahr. 1 lb. of air occupies 13,141 cu. ft. At 
100 deg. Fahr. this air occupies 14,096 cu. ft. Theoretically it re- 
quires 131/2 to 141/2 lbs. of air to effect the perfect combustion of 
1 lb. of oil. Allowing 14 lbs. at 62 deg. Fahr. it would require 
183.97 cu. ft. of air to effect perfect combustion of 1 lb. of oil or at 
100 deg. Fahr. it would require 197.34 cu. ft. of air. Practically it 
requires from I71/2 to I91/2 lbs. of air to effect perfect combustion 
of 1 lb. of oil. Allowing 19 lbs. at 62 deg. Fahr. this air occupies 
249.68 cu. ft. or at 100 deg. Fahr. it occupies 267.82 cu. ft. Allow- 
ing 1 gal. of oil to weigh 71/2 lbs., practically it requires 1421/2 
lbs. of air to effect the perfect combustion of 1 gallon of oil or 
1872% cu. ft. of air at 62 deg. Fahr. or at 100 deg. Fahr. it will 
require 2009 14 cu. ft. It is therefore essential that liquid fuel be 
thoroughly atomized so that the oxygen of the air can freely unite 
with it. Except where mechanical burners are used, the fuel is 
atomized by means of high or low pressure air or steam. Com- 
pressed air or steam is preferable to low pressure air because it 
requires power to thoroughly atomize liquid fuel. With low pres- 
sure or volume air you are limited to the use of light oils, whereas 
with compressed air or steam as atomizer you can use any gravity 
of crude oil, fuel oil, kerosene or tar which will flow through a 14- 
inch pipe. For stationary boilers steam at boiler pressure is 



ATOMIZATION 



35 



ordinarily used to atomize the fuel. In furnaces the most economi- 
cal method of operation is the use of a small quantity of compressed 
air or dry steam through the burner to atomize the fuel, while the 
balance of the air necessary for perfect combustion is supplied 
independently through a volume air nozzle at from 3 to 5 oz. 




Fig. 11. Mechanical burner. 



pressure. Every particle of moisture which enters a furnace must 
be counteracted by the fuel and it is therefore essential, if steam 
is used as atomizer, that it be as dry as possible. It is folly to 
attempt to use steam as atomizer on a small furnace, especially 
if the equipment is located some distance from the boiler room, 



36 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

for oil and hot water do not mix advantageously. Numerous tests 
have proven that with steam at 80 lbs. pressure and air at 80 lbs. 
pressure, by using air there is a saving of 12% in fuel over steam, 
but of this 12% it costs 8% to compress the air (this includes inter- 
est on money invested in the necessary apparatus to compress the 
air, repairs, etc.), so there is therefore a total net saving of 4% in 
favor of compressed air. 




Fig. 12. Low pressure or volume air burner with oil 
regulating cock. 

With high pressure air or steam as atomizer a burner having 
a large oil orifice below the atomizer orifice and independent of 
same is preferable, because there can then be no liability of the fuel 
solidifying or carbonizing over the atomizer slot at the nose of the 
burner. As the fuel passes out perpendicularly, as shown in Fig. 10, 
it is struck by the atomizer coming out of the small orifice hori- 
zontally and so thoroughly atomized that each drop of fuel is dashed 
into 10,000 molecules and looks like a fine mist or spray. This 
burner is provided with means whereby it can be cleaned or blown 
out without removing it from its position and thus any foreign 
solid particles such as sand, red lead, scale, etc., can readily be ex- 
pelled. It produces a flat flame which may be a long narrow flame 
or it can be a fan-shaped flame of any width required, up to nine 
feet. This burner is not considered automatic, but it is automatic 
in its action, for in boiler service when the steam pressure lowers, it 
reduces the compression on the fuel at the nose of the burner and 
thus more fuel is syphoned out of the fuel orifice, which, of course, 
increases the fire and brings up the steam pressure. 



ATOMIZATION 



37 



As the use of steam means a waste of fresh water (which is a 
very scarce article on sea-going vessels), mechanical burners are 
attractive for marine service and many vessels have recently been 
equipped with them. With many of these burners you are, how- 
ever, limited to very light crude or fuel oil and there has been 
considerable difficulty experienced in preventing the paraffine or 
asphaltum base of the fuel from clogging the delicate mechanism 
of the burner. The grade of oil required for the average mechan- 
ical burner can not be obtained in every country, and as that capa- 
ble of being refined is being so largely distilled to obtain the more 




Fig. 13. Commercial or natural gas burner. 



volatile and valuable oils, the supply of this light oil is very limited. 
It is necessary to use from 80 to 400 lbs. pressure on the oil sup- 
ply line to burners, this, of course, varying with the gravity of the 
fuel. The internal construction is such that the fuel is atomized 
while passing through the body and out of the nose of the burner. 
A centrifugal air compressor operated by a modern type of turbine 
engine (Fig. 20, page 45) has been developed which, in the opinion 
of the writer, will attract a great deal of attention from marine 
engineers because with this system any gravity of liquid fuel pro- 
curable in any section of the world is thoroughly atomized, perfect 
combustion is effected, and as the system is provided with con- 



38 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

densers there is no appreciable waste of fresh water. This appa- 
ratus is light, compact, durable and efficient, and furthermore 
high pressure is not required on the fuel ; 20 lbs. air pressure is car- 
ried with this system to atomize the fuel. 

Low oil pressure can be used and is preferable for a low pressure 
air or volume air burner. In this type of burner, the light crude 
oil or fuel oil used as fuel flows down upon and through the sheet of 
air. In order to get the benefit of the full impact of the air against 




Fig. 14. Flat flame pulverized coal burner. 

the fuel, the air supply should be regulated at the mouth of the 
burner as shown in Fig. 12, and it is always advisable to get as 
simple a burner as possible so that there will be no internal tubes, 
needle points or other mechanism to wear away, clog, carbonize or 
get out of order. 

A natural or commercial gas burner, such as is shown in Fig. 13 
may be used in combination with an oil burner if desired. It, as 
well as the pulverized coal burner (Fig. 14), is very simply con- 
structed and without any intricate parts to get out of order. Both 
burners can be made to produce a long narrow flame or a broad 
fan-shaped blaze so as to span the width of the furnace or fire-box. 



Chapter IV 

OIL SYSTEMS 

The method or manner whereby liquid fuel is supplied to the 
burners is commonly called the "oil system." Requirements vary 
according to the type of the installation and the fuel burned, but 
any one who has burned oil for a short time appreciates that the 
designing of an oil system is quite an engineering feat for so much 
of the success of the equipment depends upon the oil system. Per- 
fect combustion is CO2, imperfect is CO. If you have one moment 







eVPfLY flPE 




F/iorn to" ra 2-fo' 



Fig, 16. Position of thermometer on oil supply main. 

carbon dioxide and the next moment carbon monoxide, you can 
readily see the fuel is not scientifically consumed and this results 
in irreparable loss in time and fuel. The air pressure should be 
constant and the fuel should flow to the burner under a constant 
steady pressure, no matter whether that pressure be 1 pound, 20 
pounds or more to the square inch. Light oils, which vaporize at 
about 130 degrees Fahrenheit, need not be heated but heavy oil or 
tar must be heated sufficiently to reduce the viscosity so that it will 
flow readily. This is ordinarily done by means of steam coils. Care 



39 



40 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

however must be taken not to get the fuel too hot, for if it vaporizes 
you can not pump it. The vaporizing point of the various fuels 
has already been given in this volume, and as steam at 100 pounds 
pressure is 338 degrees Fahrenheit you can readily see that it is 
possible to heat the fuel above the vaporizing point. Thermometers 
should be placed at various points throughout the works, and one 
should be conveniently placed for the man who is responsible for 
keeping the proper temperature upon the fuel. 

In laying the piping care must be taken to keep the oil supply 
pipes below the level of the burner in order to prevent the forma- 
tion of vapor pockets, which are liable to entirely shut off the flow 
of fuel. All pipe fittings should be malleable iron. All unions on 
pipe lines must be either ground joint or flange unions with lead 
gaskets. Rubber gaskets can not be used because liquid fuel soon 
disintegrates the rubber. The use of a paste of litharge and glycer- 
ine on all pipe joints will prevent their leaking. It is essential to 
place a strainer made of wire netting in the tank to prevent lamp 
black or other foreign substances from getting into the pipes and 
valves and clogging them. 

No sane person to-day would venture near a storage tank with 
a lighted pipe, cigar, torch or any light other than electricity, but 
in order to prevent conflagration and serious loss of property 
through a steel storage tank being struck by lightning, or getting on 
fire through some accident, it is wise to run a large steam pipe line 
from the boiler room into the top of the tank. There should be a 
large number of holes in the pipe in the tank so that when the steam 
valve in or near the boiler room is opened, the steam will be widely 
diffused over the fuel in the tank. 

Of course the most simple system is that often used in gas works, 
mines and other places, where there are no insurance regulations or 
city ordinances to prevent one from placing the tank so that the 
fuel will flow by gravity, the supply being controlled by the neces- 
sary valves. The bottom of the oil tank is ordinarily placed from 
four to six feet above the level of the burners, but in gas houses 
often the tank is placed on top of the boiler so that the heat in the 
boiler room will heat the fuel sufficiently to reduce its viscosity. 

Figure 17 shows an oil supply system which conforms with the 
Underwriters' requirements and which is used in hundreds of 
plants. The storage tank, placed at some distance from any build- 
ing, is covered with two feet of earth. As the average oil tank 



OIL SYSTEMS 



41 







o2 









to ^ 



CL3 

o 



0) cj 



42 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

car contains about 6,000 gallons I always recommend oil storage 
capacity of 10,000 gallons if the plant is on a railroad siding. Either 
one large tank or small ones coupled together as shown may be 
used. A reciprocating pump is preferable. I never advocate a 
rotary pump except when nothing but light oils will be used, and 
even then a rotary pump has a tendency to churn the fuel into a 
foam, thereby causing slight but noticeable explosions in the fire- 
box or furnace. By means of the pump, pulsometer and a pressure 
release valve (set at 12 pounds pressure), with this system 12 
pounds pressure is constantly maintained on the main oil supply 
line whether one or a dozen burners are in operation. While light 
oil which vaporizes at about 130 degrees Fahrenheit does not need 
to be heated, oil of 16 gravity Baume is first heated by means of a 
steam coil in the storage tank and then by the exhaust from the 
pump so that after passing through this heater it is fed to the 
burner at just below the vaporizing point. 

As the base and residuum of very heavy oil, oil tar or coal tar 
has a tendency to clog the pressure valve used in the above system 
and render it worthless, it is sometimes advisable to install a 
"valveless system" similar to that shown in Fig. 18. In this case 
that portion of the oil pumped which is not used by the burners 
flows into a column or standpipe of sufficient height to give six 
or eight pounds pressure on the oil line, and then back again to 
the storage tank. With this arrangement there can be no fluctua- 
tion in the oil pressure. Should the fuel be accidentally heated at 
any time above the vaporizing point, you will note that this vapor 
can readily pass out of the top of the standpipe through a vent 
pipe extending above the roof of the building and ten feet from 
any smoke stack. In case the Underwriters do not permit the 
use of a column or standpipe, it is necessary to use the pressure 
relief valve. 

In Fig. 19 is shown oil system used for heating hotels, office 
buildings, etc. An electric motor operates an air compressor 
which supplies air to force the fuel from the storage tank to burner 
and also the air required through the burner to atomize the fuel. 
This system is absolutely reliable, for should a fuse burn out the 
oil and air supply to burner are stopped simultaneously. Or an 
oil or gas engine may be used and the compressor operated by a 
counter-shaft. In this case should the engine stop or belt break, 



OIL SYSTEMS 



43 




44 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



the compressor will at once cease to force the fuel to the burner. 
Both these systems are simple, safe and sane. 

For marine service, where the prevention of the waste of fresh 
water requires careful consideration, a turbine engine with con- 



^ 




Mi 



T -il f. __ ^^ 



Fig. 19. Compressed air system — only adequate for light crude or fuel oil. 



denser may be used to operate the oil pump and a compressor of 
adequate size to furnish air at sui!icient pressure to atomize the 
gravity of oil obtainable in any port and to distribute the heat in 
the fire-box, also the additional air required in the boiler room. 
This system as shown in Fig. 20 is very compact, efficient and 
economical. As the engine exhausts into a condenser, the loss of 
fresh water is reduced to the minimum. While oil used exclusively 
as fuel cannot compete with the price of coal in many localities, it 
is very necessary to use it to aid the coal fire while carrying peak 
loads. 

To effect the strictest economy crude oil or tar must always be 
heated to just below the vaporizing point. With the heavy oil, 
such as is produced in Mexico, it is sometimes advantageous to 
use an oil superheater so that, as for instance on a locomotive, if 



OIL SYSTEMS 



45 







aw 

9. ^ 



46 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

the oil is not heated sufficiently in the storage tank of tender or 
if the tank has just been refilled at the end of a division, by passing 
through a superheater just before it reaches the oil regulating 
cock, it will be fed to the burner at just below the vaporizing 
point. (See Fig. 52, page 76.) When burning heavy oil in fur- 
naces, if the fuel must come considerable distance, it is often es- 
sential to preheat it near the burner even if there is a steam heater 
pipe immediately under the oil supply line from the storage tank. 
A superheater is also valuable for heating tar between the storage 




Fig. 21. Oil regulating cock. 



tank and the burner so that it will be of such consistency that it 
can be readily atomized. 

When an ordinary globe valve is used to regulate the fuel sup- 
ply, and the valve is partly closed, the small opening between the 
valve proper and the seat acts as a strainer and any residuum 
or foreign substances in the oil finally closes the opening and cuts 
off the supply. We have here shown an oil regulating cock provided 
with a V-shaped, knife-edged opening in the plug, which not only 
has a shearing action on heavy liquid fuels, but enables the op- 
erator to secure the finest possible adjustment. It is unnecessary 
to make comparison between this cock and an ordinary globe valve 
or plug cock to any intelligent man who has had experience in 
handling liquid fuel. When a furnace is working continuously on 



OIL SYSTEMS 



47 




48 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



ill 

:! ^ 

II 5 

I' I 
I I 



I 



»$^. 



OIL SYSTEMS 



49 




50 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

one class of work, this cock can be set by the adjusting screw so 
that when the burner is stopped for noon hour, or at night, it can 
be returned to the same adjustment when again started. 

Improper Oil System. Please note the following points while 
studying Fig. Nos. 22 and 23 : 

1. There is no foot valve or strainer upon the suction pipe, 
which causes the pump to labor unnecessarily. 

2. The suction pipe is so installed as to cause a vapor pocket, 
which results in the pump not functioning properly. 

3. The supply pipe rises and then drops again. If the supply 
pipe is thus laid, the result is that there is a vapor pocket in 
the supply pipe, which always permits vapor to collect in the 
pipe and causes an intermittent flow of oil to the burner. 

4. There is a "dead end." The laterals lead from the supply 
pipe to the boilers or furnaces (whatever the oil pumping 
system is for) and there is no provision for any circulation 
of the oil. 

5. The overflow pipe from the pressure relief valve is coupled 
to the suction pipe, which is absolutely incorrect. 

6. But one pump is provided, and should the piston rod of this 
pump break (which is liable to happen even with the best 
construction) the result is that the plant is shut down, all 
the officials humiliated, the output ceases and an investiga- 
tion follows; all of which is absolutely unnecessary if the 
oil pumping system is properly installed. 

An Oil System which never disappoints the operator is shown 
in Fig. Nos. 24, 25, 26, and 27. 

Proper Oil System. Please note the following: — 

1. The tank is buried underground to conform with Under- 
writers' requirements. 

2. The pumps are above the oil tank. 

3. Oil is heated by means of modern oil heaters. 

4. Two pumps and heaters are supplied (one of each for re- 
serve). Each pump is supplied with a pump speed regula- 
tor so that in case the oil pressure on the oil supply line ex- 
ceeds 12 pounds the steam operating the pump is automatic- 
ally shut off, which in turn stops the operation of the pump. 



OIL SYSTEMS 



51 




52 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




OIL SYSTEMS 



53 



^^ 



1^ 









1^ 



^^^ 












^1 




54 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

5. The oil supply pipe is so run that very short laterals are re- 
quired between the oil supply pipe and the boilers or fur- 
naces. 

6. The pressure relief valve is set beyond the last boiler or 
furnace so that if the oil is heavy and must be heated, hot 




Fig. 28. Oil pump regulator. 



oil is delivered to all of the furnaces or boilers at all times 
at the proper temperature. 
7. There are absolutely no "dead ends," but a perfect circula- 
tion of the oil. The overflow or excess oil passes through 
the overflow pipe and back to the oil storage tank. The 



OIL SYSTEMS 



55 



overflow pipe is declined so that the oil will flow by gravity 
from the relief valve to the tank. 




Fig. 29. Modern 
combination foot 
valve and strainer. 




Fig. 30. Pressure relief 
valve. 



Fig. 31. 
Pulsometer. 



8. The oil supply tank is provided with a vent pipe, the exit 
end of which is covered with gauze so that the vapor rising 
from the oil can be vented from the vent pipe without danger. 



56 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

The manner of applying a modern oil system to a boiler is shown 
in Figs. 33 and 34. The cost for installation of the extra pump and 
heater is of minor importance as compared with a possible shut- 
down because of a broken piston rod, valve, spring, etc. The ex- 
haust of either pump may be employed for the heating of the oil, 
or if it is not desired to heat the oil, the exhaust of the pump may 
be by-passed to the open air. The valves upon the piping are so 
placed as to control the flow of oil to either one heater or to both 
heaters. The second heater, if desired, may be used to heat the oil 
by means of direct steam from the boiler to a higher temperature 
than can be obtained from the exhaust steam of the pump. The 
form of heater recommended is shown in Fig. 32. 



- ■f wuuttf r tf/n 



9-4 



Fig. 32. Oil heater. 



Sometimes it is necessary during a coal strike or when for vari- 
ous other reasons the coal supply fails, to burn oil as an emergency 
fuel. In such a case it is advisable to use the temporary installation 
shown in Fig. 39. By means of the duplex pump and pressure 
relief valve set at 10 lbs. a complete circulating system is effected 
and the excess oil is pumped back into the oil tank car. The pump 
should be coupled to the bottom of the tank and it is quite necessary 
to place a valve for drainage. This is a good system to use if you 
desire to run a test in a furnace, burning oil in place of coal. 

Oil storage tanks may be made in various forms and of various 
materials. That shown in Fig. 40 is of steel and you will note that 
there is an inner compartment provided with heater coils so that 
only approximately the quantity of fuel needed for one day is heated 
to the required temperature. This insures the fuel being supplied 
to the burners at the proper temperature and prevents deterioration 



OIL SYSTEMS 



57 




58 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Oil systems 



m 




60 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




OIL SYSTEMS 



61 







62 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




OIL SYSTEMS 



63 




64 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 








Fig. 40. Cylindrical steel 
storage tank. 



]^uiti 







r^ie CoMarNS£0 Sr£/>M rxom 
Tms fiPE SHOiiLe PASS 
i\rofi Mor ifJELL 0/< series 

«/? BA/I/N />//■£. 






OIL SYSTEMS 



65 



•m 






0: 




66 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



or loss through evaporation of the more volatile gases in the larger 
body of fuel. 

The dimensions of the walls and the manner of constructing or 
reinforcing a concrete oil storage tank depends upon the location 




Fig. 42. Large cylindrical concrete oil storage tank. 



and the soil. That shown in Fig. 41 is 153 ft. long, 40 ft. 
wide, capacity 480,000 gallons. The bottom of this tank slopes 
down toward the center and there is a slump hole from which the 
sand or other foreign substance may be removed through the trap 



OIL SYSTEMS 67 

door on top of the small compartment immediately above the slump. 
Heater coils are so placed that only the fuel required for daily con- 
sumption is heated. 

Often it is not convenient to install a long tank. The cylindrical 
form is shown in Fig. 42. This has the small compartment with coils 
for heating one day's supply in the center of the larger tank. 

The Care of Oil Tanks 

The following sign should always be placed in a position where 
it can easily be observed: — 
"No smoking. 

"Do not come near these tanks with an open 
flame torch or a lantern, nor use matches." 

It is very important that great care be taken in this particular; 
and when it becomes necessary to enter the interior of a tank, all 
oil should be removed and the tank steamed for at least one week. 
Do NOT under any circumstances allow men to enter a tank to 
remove oil if it contains over 1% sulphur. It is criminal careless- 
ness to order men to go into an oil tank before all oil is removed 
and the tank thoroughly steamed for several days, for the effect 
of the sulphurous gas in the tank would possibly destroy the lives 
of many men. 

Nothing but electric lights should be used in or about oil tanks 
after oil has once been placed in them. 

Since it is a fact that vapor or gas is constantly passing from 
the oil in the oil tank, it is absolutely essential to provide a vent 
pipe and always cover this vent pipe with wire gauze of 1-16 inch 
mesh; for if wire gauze were not placed thereon and the flame 
from a torch, lantern, oxy-acetylene torch, etc., should come with- 
in, say, one foot of this vent, it would almost instantly cause an 
explosion. You should use every precaution to prevent such an 
occurrence. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder or tank in gallons, square the 
diameter in inches by its length in inches, and by .0034 ; or square 
the diameter in inches by its length in feet and by .0408; or 
square the diameter in feet and by its length in feet and by 7.4805. 

Pyrometers, thermometers, draft gauges, oil and water meters, 
etc., are all good paying investments, and tend to increase the 
efficiency of a plant. 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Fig. 43. Diagram showing central compartment with piping, heaters, etc., in 
cylindrical concrete tank. 



Chapter V 
REFRACTORY MATERIAL 

Poor fire-brick should never be used as it is most disappointing 
both to the builder and owner of the furnace. It takes as much 
time and labor to construct a furnace of poor fire-brick as of 
good brick. Poor brick is dear at any price, no matter what may 
be the fuel used. 

The excessive heat which can be obtained from liquid fuel makes 
it necessary in many instances to use a very superior grade of fire- 
brick. • For example, in welding furnaces the lining should be 
capable of withstanding 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit without dripping 
or melting away, while in crucible melting furnaces the fire-brick 
must be capable of withstanding the high temperature required 
to melt fourteen pots of crucible steel at one heat. These bricks 
must be non-expanding, for if they were to expand in the same 
proportion as silica brick, the furnace lining would become six 
inches too long, which amount of expansion would ruin the con- 
struction of the furnace. The analysis of brick for crucible fur- 
naces is as follows: 

Silica 56.15 % 

Alumina 33.295% 

Peroxide Iron 0.59 % 

Lime 0.17 % 

Magnesia 0.115% 

Water and inorganic matter 9.68 % 

In open hearth furnaces a silica brick is essential because it will 
withstand the required high temperature, and as these furnaces 
are operated continually the expansion and contraction of this 
brick has not the detrimental effect in this class of service which 
it has in a furnace which is only operated eight or ten hours daily. 
In annealing furnaces, owing to the lower temperature required 
for the heat-treatment of metals, it is not necessary to use such 
good quality of brick. It is, however, essential that these bricks 

69 



70 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

do not expand nor contract. It is also very necessary that the fur- 
nace be carefully constructed by a competent furnace builder, for 
the bricks should not be laid in layers of fire clay the way or- 
dinary red bricks are laid with mortar, but should simply be dipped 
in very liquid fire clay solution, and then laid in place. It is ad- 
visable to use special shaped bricks for lining small furnaces, 
owing to the fact that it does not require a skilled mason to place 




45. Furnace with front casting removed to 
show special shaped brick lining. 

these blocks in position. For example, two blacksmith helpers 
can reline a furnace, having charging space 18 inches wide, 22 
inches deep, by 16 inches high, with 13 large, accurately shaped 
blocks in forty minutes. As these shapes are interlocking and 
as the number of the joints is greatly reduced, this lining lasts 
about three times as long as a furnace lined with ordinary standard 
size fire-brick. This fully demonstrates the theory that every fire- 
brick joint in the furnace shortens the life of the construction. 
As magnesite brick has no affinity for iron, it is often used for 



REFRACTORY MATERIAL 71 

furnace bottom in welding furnaces, etc. For air furnace bottoms 
a special grade of sand is necessary, the analysis of which is as 
follows : 

Silica 89.94 

Oxide of Iron 2.64 

Oxide of Aluminum 3.26 

Magnesia trace 

Lime trace 

Total Alkali 2.62 

Loss on ignition 1.50 



Chapter VI 
LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 

Hundreds of locomotive firemen are today rejoicing because of 
the discovery of liquid fuel, for instead of their runs being a con- 
tinuous arduous task of shoveling coal they are riding like a prince 
on. their seat in the cab, gazing out of the window at the track 
ahead, safeguarding their own lives as well as those of the travel- 
ing public in the train. One hand rests upon the lever of an oil- 
regulating quadrant by means of which they can instantly in- 






1 



•?ff«,^j 



Fig. 47. Locomotive oil burner. 



crease or decrease the flow of fuel passing into the fire-box. When 
a locomotive is changed from coal to oil, its tonnage is increased 
15%; for you can at all times maintain the full boiler pressure of 
steam. Even while going up the highest grade or mountain, the 
steam pressure in the boiler is not lowered and there is absolutely 
no smoke. As there are no smoke or sparks emitted, the danger 
of setting fire to forests, bridges, buildings, etc., is eliminated, and, 
because of this fact, oil-burning locomotives are used in coal mines, 
on divisions passing through timber lands, etc. Before oil was 
introduced, timber of inestimable value was destroyed by sparks 
in Louisiana, the Adirondack Mountains, etc. 

Great advances have been made in the equipment of locomotives, 
but the types are so numerous it is difficult to specifically describe 
these changes. Formerly it was customary to bolt the burner to 



72 



LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 



73 



the mud ring below the fire-box door, directing the flame toward 
the flue sheet under an arch made of A-1 fire brick. This arch 
was a source of great difficulty, as it often fell or wasted away, 
thus deflecting the heat against the crown sheet. Again, too, often 
if the flues began to leak, the water dripping down upon the arch 
penetrated the fire-brick, thus generating steam which caused the 




Fig. 48. A modern type of locomotive equipm.ent. 



structure to crumble and fall. The most modern practice is to 
eliminate the arch entirely, the burner being placed at the flue 
sheet end of the fire-box substantially as shown in Fig. 48. This 
insures a reverberatory movement of the flame and heat for the 
burner directs the flame against the fire-brick cross wall at the 
rear of the fire-box, where it is deflected and drawn forward by 



74 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

the exhaust to the flue sheet end of the fire-box. The grates, of 
course, are always omitted. By means of the inverted arch with 
dampered air opening, the quantity of air necessary for perfect 
combustion is regulated according to requirements. When the 
locomotive is going forward the rear damper is open, and while 
the locomotive is going backward the front damper is open. 

I show but one type of inverted arch, but will say that these 
vary in construction. Some have damper-controlling devices by 
which the fireman can accurately control the admission of air 
passing into the fire-box, while others admit the air through open- 
ings in the burner end of the inverted arch. A fireman who uses 
judgment in the operation of the damper type secures the high- 
est economy in fuel by admitting just sufficient air while at the 
same time allowing no smoke to pass from smoke stack — in 



-4 




Fig. 50. Lo- 
Fig. 49. Fire- comotiveoil 

man's regulat- r e g u 1 a t- 

ing quadrant. ing cock. 



other words, he effects perfect combustion. Careless firemen who 
do not use good judgment in controlling the damper make a bet- 
ter record in fuel economy by the use of the type of inverted arch 
with air openings at the burner end. Care should always be taken 
not to admit a superfluous amount of air into the fire-box, as it 
requires additional fuel to heat excess quantity air to the tem- 
perature of the fire-box. 

The fireman's regulating quadrant takes the place of the coal 
shovel on an oil-burning engine. The early history of liquid fuel 
equipment shows that many locomotive fire-boxes were ruined be- 
cause the fireman inadvertently shut off the fuel supply while 
drifting down a long grade or coming into a station. He thought 
he had a light fire, but there being none, the cold air, rushing in, 



LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 



75 



damaged the fire-box and started the flues to leaking. This diffi- 
culty is now entirely obviated by the use of a quadrant attached 
by means of a rod to an oil-regulating cock (Fig. 50), having a 
V-shaped knife-edge orifice in the plug through which the fuel 
enters and passes out through a much larger orifice. With this 
apparatus you can have the pops operate going up the steepest 




■' 




1 


■ ^ ; 


: H ; 






^ 



Fig. 51. Oil tank placed in former coal space of locomotive tender. 



grade on any mountain if so desired, or you can hold the steam 
at any pressure without varying 5 pounds over the division of any 
railroad. While drifting the lug of the lever or handle of the 
quadrant engages with a set screw in the hinged latch, which in- 
sures a constant light fire sufficient to maintain steam pressure 
and operate the air pump. When speed or maximum power is 
required the lever is moved towards the left, which increases the 
flow of oil. When the engine is placed in the round house the 
hinged latch is thrown back, and the lever is moved to the right 
as far as possible and the top thumb screw tightened. In this 



76 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

position the lever is stationary and the fuel supply to burner en- 
tirely shut off. 

An oil tank, such as can be placed in the former coal space of 
the locomotive tender to supply fuel over a division, is shown in 
Fig. 51. This tank can readily be filled. Means are provided for 
heating the coil in this tank substantially as shown ; also splash 
plates in order that the oil may be carried in this tank the same 
way as water is carried in the tender tank. The bottom of the 
tank is ordinarily only one foot above the burner, but with the 
form of atomizer shown in Fig. 47, which has a syphoning action, 
this pressure is sufficient so that air is not required to force the 
fuel to burner. 




Fig. 52. Oil superheater. 

When heavy oil is cold and viscous, the locomotive can not pull 
her tonnage, and carbon will lodge on the fire-brick lining of the 
inverted arch. Although heated by steam coils in the storage tank 
of tender it is often wise to have heavy viscous fuel pass through a 
superheater just before it reaches the regulating cock so that it 
will get to the burner heated to just below the vaporizing point. 
The superheater shown in Fig. 52 is both simple and durable, and is 
operated by a globe valve conveniently placed for the fireman, 
which allows the steam to surround the oil pipe, all condensation 
passing out of the drain cock at the bottom of the superheater. 
Such a device is really a necessity when the oil tank has been filled 
at the end of a division, for it takes some time for the cold, heavy 
oil to become sufficiently heated by the steam pipe in the tank. 



LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 



77 




78 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 



79 




Fig. 55. Diagram showing fireman's operating valves, etc. 



80 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

As soon as a locomotive is changed from coal to oil fuel (which 
can be done at a very small cost) , the train-tonnage of the engine 
is increased 15 per cent., because the locomotive can easily carry 
the steam pressure at all times at just below its "popping-off " 
point. This, of course, cannot be done while using coal as fuel. 

For locomotive service the most modern practice is "the duplex 
oil system," which employs two burners, a small and a large one. 
rhe former, used as the engine leaves the round house, and oper- 
ated continuously thereafter, serves as a pilot light, as well as to 
keep just sufficient heat in the fire-box to maintain the temperature 
and the steam required when the locomotive is standing still. It 
keeps the steam at just below the "popping-off" point when only 
the air pump is running, and no other work is being done. The 
large burner, ordinarily placed above the smaller one, is operated 
when the locomotive is at work. By this system the life of the 




.ORT/» 

Fig. 56. Pilot burner. 

boiler is increased, and the handling of the locomotive becomes 
much simpler. The larger burner is only operated when the 
locomotive is in actual service, which of course means a great 
saving in fuel. A small burner outfit will pay for itself in the 
saving of fuel effected by its use, many times during the course of a 
year. 

Gravity oil feed is ordinarily used in locomotive service. 
Air pressure should not be used on the locomotive oil tank to 
aid in forcing the fuel to the burner ; but in stationary or marine 
practice 10 pounds pressure should be maintained on the oil-supply 
pipe. 



LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 



81 







Fig. 57. Locomotive equipment using pilot burner. 



82 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT 



83 




Fig. 59. 

Small locomotive 
equipped with 
tv/o burners. 



Chapter VII 
STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 

The Steam Engineering Department of the United States Navy 
in 1904 conducted a series of tests upon a water-tube boiler using 
oil as fuel. The Bureau at that time was under the charge of the 




Fig. 61. High pressure oil burner mounted for marine or stationary 
boilers, burning oil or tar exclusively as fuel. 

late Rear-Admiral George W. Melville, and the tests were con- 
ducted by a competent board of efficient naval engineers, viz.: 
John R. Edwards, Commander (now Rear-Admiral), U. S. Navy; 
W. M. Parks, Lieutenant-Commander, U. S. Navy; F. H. Bailey, 
Lieutenant-Commander, U. S. Navy ; and Mr. Harvey D. Williams 
and Mr. Frank Van Vleck, two oil experts who served the Board as 
secrstaries. These gentlemen faithfully discharged their duties 
and gave to the United States and, in fact to the whole world, a 
most accurate and exhaustive report on the burning of oil in boilers 

84 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 85 

which still remains the highest authority on boiler equipment and 
has done much toward the introduction of oil in the manufacturing 
world as well as in the navies and merchant marine. We owe this 
Board a debt of gratitude for their untiring efforts in our behalf. 

In some sections of the country where oil is cheap it is exten- 
sively used in stationary and marine boilers. For this purpose it 
is most excellent, for it insures perfect combustion and a constant, 
even fire, whereas in the burning of coal it is impossible to keep 
up an even heat because of its being necessary to so frequently 
replenish the fuel supply. There is no expense for the handling of 
fuel and ashes. One man can fire and water-tend a battery of 
twelve oil-fired boilers using the oil burner shov^rn in Fig. 61. This 
burner is mounted with piping of sufficient length to go through 
the front setting of the boiler. By means of the by-pass valve any 
foreign substances that might enter the oil pipes can be blown out. 
The atomizer lip is movable so that should any foreign substances, 
such as scale, sand or red lead collect in the atomizer pipes or slot, 
it can readily be removed. This is done by slackening the locknut 
on the end of the connecting rod, which allows the steam used for 
atomizing to push the lip forward and blow out the foreign sub- 
stance without removing the burner from the boiler. With this 
type of burner, steam should be used for atomizing purposes in high 
pressure boilers, owing to the fact that the steam in passing over 
the oil orifice acts as a syphon. Furthermore, as the steam passes 
out of its small orifice and over the oil orifice, it expands, which 
has a compressing effect upon the fuel. When the steam pressure 
in the boiler lowers, this compression is reduced and this allows 
more oil to pass out of the oil orifice to meet the load. In other 
words, while this burner is not considered automatic, it functions 
automatically. The steam and oil orifices are independent of one 
another and on account of the atomizer orifice being above the fuel 
orifice, there is no liability of the burner carbonizing. 

In traction power houses where, for about three hours in the 
morning and three hours in the evening, it is necessary to develop 
twice as much power as during the rest of the day, the engineers 
with oil have no difficulty in developing double the normal rated 
horse-power of each boiler without injury to the elements, thus 
entirely obviating the necessity of keeping extra boilers with 
banked fires. In some plants where coal is ordinarily used as fuel 
the boilers carry the peak loads by using a combination of oil and 



86 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



coal, the burners being placed inside of fire-box as shown in Fig. 
62. 

Another service of great importance and of growing demand 
is in large electric light plants which formerly had a long battery 
of boilers carrying banked coal fires, for during a storm or threat- 




Fig. 62. 



Boiler equipped for the use of oil or tar to aid coal or breeze fire in 
carrying peak loads. 



ening weather many lights are turned on simultaneously through- 
out a city, thus necessitating the immediate replenishing of elec- 
trical energy. A number of plants have been changed to oil by 
placing the burner in the front end setting of boiler, the grates 
being covered with a checker-work of fire-brick, the opening in 
the checker-work being of such proportions as to admit sufficient 
oxygen for the consuming fuel. A gas pilot light is constantly 
kept burning and when the boilers are suddenly called into serv- 
ice the oil burner is started in five seconds by simply operating the 
two operating valves, and in ten minutes 150 pounds of steam is on 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



87 



the boiler. Of course, when not under fire, hot water is constantly 
passing through these boilers, this being the same practice as is 
used in fire-engine houses. 

Oil is used in some power plants where they have stokers and 
where a boiler is called into service quickly. In this case the oil 
burner is mounted with swivel points (see Fig. 63), and when 
called into use it is simply swung from its position at the side of 
the boiler and plays its fire over the bed of coal until the green coal 
fire has been properly ignited, after which it is swung out of po- 



II^I^^ 


\ -■ -* 



Fig. 63. Oil or tar burner mounted with swivel joints. 



sition and the burner opening in the side of fire-box is closed by 
fire-brick of the exact size and form required to fill the burner 
opening. 

With the average fluctuating load in stationary boilers it re- 
quires approximately 147 gallons of oil having calorific value of 
19,000 B.t.u. per lb. and weighing 7.5 lbs. per gallon to equal one 
long ton of bituminous coal (2240 lbs.) having calorific value of 
14,200 B.t.u. per lb. 



88 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

The analysis of one of the best coals is as follows: 

Carbon 82.26% 

Hydrogen 3.89% 

Oxygen 4.12% 

Nitrogen " 64% 

Sulphur 49% 

Ash 8.60% 

Total 100 % 

Calorific value per lb. 15,391 B.t.u. 

However, the average of good coals has a calorific value of 14,200 
B.t.u. per pound. 

There are many types of stationary boilers all of which play their 
particular part in the manufacturing world. Along the line of 
railroads old locomotive boilers discarded from railway service are 
often used in water pumping stations. Oil is an excellent fuel for 
this work, for the fireman can adjust the burner and have plenty 
of time to care for the pumping plant, as he does not have to regu- 
late the burner for three or four hours at a time, but of course he 
must give attention to the water supply for the boiler. In Fig. 64 
is shown the manner of equipping such a boiler. If, however, oil is 
simply to be used in emergencies, the grates need not be removed 
for they can be covered with a checker work of fire brick as indicated 
in Fig. 65. A 214" tube through which to place the burner is placed 
in between the throat sheet and the flue sheet. This tube is beaded 
over in the same manner as when a flue is beaded against the flue 
sheet of the boiler. There are some equipments in which it is im- 
possible to pass the burner through the throat sheet and in such 
cases the burner is installed as shown in Fig, 66. A deflection wall 
is placed across the fire-box in the manner shown and the burner 
is inserted through a 2^/4" tube, beaded on each end. It is important 
that no air be admitted between the flue sheet and the cross wall. 

In the equipment of the water-leg boiler (Fig. 67) the burner is 
inserted in a tube which is beaded over on each end. The flame 
from the burner is directed towards the firing door. Suflicient 
space should be left in the door opening for firing up with wood 
when the boiler is cold and there is no steam with which to begin 
operating the oil burner. 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



89 



If the refractory material is placed in an Economic boiler as 
shown in Fig. 68, the 18" arch prevents any short-circuiting of the 
flame and heat when the fire from the oil burner is reduced. The 
refractory construction shown makes it very easy to fire up this 
boiler with wood without removing the burner or piping. In plants 
where there is only one boiler, if the dampers are carefully closed 
when the burner is shut off at night, there will ordinarily be forty 




Fig. 64. Locomotive boiler equipped for stationary service. 



or fifty pounds of steam on the boiler in the mornmg with which 
to begin operating the burner, as the heat radiating from the refrac- 
tory material will maintain that pressure during the night. After 
the boiler has been washed out or closed down over Sunday it is 
necessary to fire the boiler with wood until ten or fifteen pounds 
of steam is raised, but with this type of equipment this can be done 
with the full assurance that no injury will be done to the burner. 



90 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




O G 

s 

o 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



91 



f<'^i 




Fig. 'o<o. Equipment of locomotive type stationary boiler when the 
burner cannot be inserted through throat sheet. 




Fig. 67. Water-leg boiler equipment. 



92 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



2 f= 

gs 

p 

00 ^ 








e 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



93 



"^ 



^ 



IE 




94 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



In a Stirling boiler (Fig. 77) the grates should be lowered and 
the burner placed between the two ash-pit doors. Unless the 
width of the fire-box exceeds 71/2 feet only one burner giving a 
fan-shaped flame is required. Never remove the arch or arches 
over the grates, for these are necessary to deflect the heat to and 
through the elements of the boiler. 

There are two methods of equipping a Heine boiler. One is 
known as the Deep Setting and the other the Grate Setting. The 
latter is simply placing a burner through the firing door as shown 




Fig. 70. Scotch marine boiler equipment. 



in Fig. 78, and covering the grates with a checker-work of fire- 
brick, leaving a space of % inch between the bricks, so that the air 
required for combustion can readily pass up there through. Care 
must be taken to have the proper distance between the flame and 
the refractory material covering the grates. I have experimented 
a great deal in order to ascertain this distance, and have found that 
with a burner giving a fan-shaped flame there should be 8 inches 
between the nose of the burner or the Line of Blaze from the 
burner and the top of the fire-brick checker-work. In the "Deep 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



95 




96 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



Setting" (Fig. 79) the grates are removed and rows of support 
brick laid in the ash-pit. On these the checker-work is placed, 
leaving % inch space between bricks if the stack is high or a 
greater distance if there is only a short stack. The "Deep Setting" 




Sfcr/e/j ffr />-/>-/>-/> 



Fig. 



72. Equipment of boiler with twin fire-boxes — grates not re- 
moved, oil being only used as an emergency fuel. 



is always preferable because by removing the grates you increase 
the size of the fire-box, thus correspondingly increasing the 
efficiency of the boiler. With the "Deep Setting" you get practi- 
cally 11/2 pounds greater evaporation per pound of fuel than with 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



97 




98 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



99 




100 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




2 ^ 
S2 












STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



101 



the "Grate Setting," and there is no liability of the elements being 
injured, even when forcing boiler far beyond its normal rated 
horse power. With either the Grate or Deep Setting the bridge wall 
is cut down level with the top of the checker-work so that the heat 
may be even throughout the entire length of the fire-box. 




Fig. 77. Stirling boiler equipment. 



In our early attempts to equip a Babcock & Wilcox boiler we 
covered the grates with a checker-work of fire-brick, placing the 
burner in the front end setting and directing the heat rearwardly. 
Our chief difficulties were the inadequate size of the chamber in 
which combustion took place, a concentration of the heat at the 



10^ 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



103 



vtiiog no 



{ 




k 


—^-^^ 


1 


t 




••Jl« 






104 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



rearward end of the first pass and an insufficient amount of heat 
at the header-end of the boiler. Finally we removed the grates, 
placing the fire-brick checker-work on rows of support brick 
laid in ash-pit, and constructed a deflection arch or ledge to de- 
flect the heat forward, as shown in Fig. 80. Further experiment- 




Fig. 80. Babcock & Wilcox boiler equipment. 



ing revealed the fact that the very best results are obtained by 
having a distance of 3 feet between the base line of the setting and 
the floor line, and constructing the deflection cross wall as shown 
in Fig. 81. It may seem costly to make the setting so low but this 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



105 




106 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



107 




s^^fryf/r o/f^ 



C*?; 




Fig. 83. Return tubular boiler equipment — grate setting. 



108 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



cost is soon offset by the economy in fuel and efficiency effected 
because of your getting the benefit of an even distribution of heat 
throughout the first pass of the boiler. 

A return tubular boiler may be equipped by simply placing 
checker-work on the grates and cutting the bridge wall down level 
therewith, as shown in Fig. 83, but personally I recommend the 
"Deep Setting," similar to that described under Heine boiler, see 
Fig. 79. 

Admirable results are obtained from Vertical Boilers by placing 
the burner so that the flame enters the fire-box tangentially, for 






^ 




■^ 






y.:. 








~ 1 1 i i 1 1 




t 


::.:212 


J 




Fig. 84. Tangential flame equipment as applied to a vertical boiler. 



this causes a reverberatory movement of the flame and heat and 
prevents impingement upon any of the elements of the boiler. To 
start the boiler shown in Fig. 84, when cold in a pumping station 
or when used as an auxiliary boiler, we simply break up a few 
boxes and pass them in through the fire-door and in a few moments 
ten or twelve pounds of steam is raised on this small boiler, which 
is sufficient to operate the oil burner on this boiler, and this boiler 
in turn furnishes steam to operate the burners of a large battery 
of boilers. 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



109 



co/^/f£cr ro rop 




(ff/^ SHOWS 8Sci.oss/r . 



P/f£3£/Vr 
GffS BU/fN£J!S fjors/iow/^ 



Sc//?A/e/i £^J? v/Ey^ 



Fig. 85. Vertical boiler in which both gas and oil can be used as fuel. 



110 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



Sometimes it is quite essential to have a small boiler in which 
either natural or commercial gas can be used in combination with 
oil or in which either fuel may be used without the other. For this 
purpose a small vertical boiler is becoming quite popular. This 
outfit (Fig. 85) is often used chiefly to supply steam in a small 



BiBMCif rir Ci.oa£ vi*i.rC 




Fig. 86. Vertical boiler with gravity oil feed. 



power plant with which to begin the operation of the oil burners in 
the larger boilers after they have been washed out or are cold from 
being shut down over a week-end or holiday. It only takes a few 
minutes to raise the necessary steam in this type of boiler. 

Many vertical boilers can be equipped with a burner giving a fan- 
shaped flame but it is very much better to have the burner give a 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



111 



narrow flame. With the tangential flame equipment shown in Figs. 
86, 87 and 88, you get an absolutely even distribution of heat in the 
fire-box, this heat encircling the fire-box and passing upwardly 
through the elements of the boiler without impinging at any point. 
The grates should be removed and the ashpit lined sufficiently high to 
protect the mud ring. When the boiler is cold, five pounds steam 




Z ,' '•» -"V "■* f'/'i^c B/f>i:Ji 



Fig. 87. Vertical boiler — longitudinal mid-section. 



pressure with which to begin operating the oil burner, can readily 
be raised with a wood fire. The kindlings or wood can be put in 
through the firing door. The ashes from the burnt wood will very 
quickly pass away after the oil burner is started. In some equip- 
ments it is well to place a pilot burner to be used the same as in 



112 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




r n »xi n.wi^ 



Fig. 88. Vertical boiler equipment. 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 113 



rnnrn 



rrmum 




Fig. 89. Manning vertical boiler. 



114 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



locomotive service to maintain the required steam pressure while 
the boiler is idle. Fig. 87 shows a portion of a portable outfit where 
a pilot burner is used on the boiler ; also gravity oil feed. 

In equipping a Fitzgibbons type of boiler, it is very important 
to place the burner so that the flame will not impinge against the 
crown sheet of the boiler. The equipment is very simple if the 
burner is placed on the side opposite the firing door as indicated in 
Fig. 90. 




mmmm^ 






-7-7- 



Fig. 90. Fitzgibbons boiler equipment. 



The liquid fuel injectin apparatus (see Fig. 91) can be used 
either in combination with poor coal or with oil alone. If it is 
desired to use oil alone, the grates are covered with ashes and the 
burner is operated by opening the air damper and starting the 
burner, same as in furnace practice. When the strike or coal short- 
age is over the ashes can readily be removed from the grates, the 
burner shut off, the air damper closed by the lever shown in the 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 115 




Fig. 91. Liquid fuel injecting apparatus. 



116 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



6/0£: o^ /vTC/vr vv/9//- <;-«■ so/^^ 









ff/j. oA r/fJi p/z't 






cur-at/T y^^vc 




Fig. 92. Liquid fuel injecting apparatus in position for operation. 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



117 



Fig. 92, and coal again burned. It should be remembered that 
in good boiler practice it requires 147 gallons of oil to represent 
a long ton of coal. Therefore unless the boiler is located in an oil- 
producing section, where oil can be purchased much cheaper than 
coal, it is not advisable to use oil in boilers except during a period 




Fig. 93. 



Liquid fuel injecting apparatus installed on open hearth furnace 
waste heat boiler. 



of coal shortage. You will note that this apparatus is placed in 
the side-wall of the boiler, midway between the front end setting 
and the bridge wall, and it does not in any way conflict with the 
operation of the stokers, or hand firing of the boiler. The waste 
heat coming from an open-hearth furnace is not always sufficient 



11& 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



119 




120 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 121 

to keep up the required steam pressure on a waste heat boiler at all 
times. All difficulty arising from this condition is obviated from 
installing the liquid fuel injecting apparatus as shown in Fig. 92. 

The burner is capable of atomizing any gravity of liquid fuel 
purchasable in open market, and is made of material that has no 
affinity whatsoever for the oil or tar. 

I am often amused at the specifications sent forth. Often they 
read as follows: 

"The burner to be of cast-iron, honestly made, and provided 
with all necessary fittings of the same material." 

One firm spent twelve years trying to find a material that has no 
affinity for oil and they have secured it. Years ago, they tried cast- 
iron, and then steel, but those metals were not satisfactory be- 
cause they wanted to obviate the clogging of the oil orifice by the 
residuum of the oil. It must be amusing to this firm to get speci- 
fications for burners indicating the very metal which they years ago 
discarded ! 

I recommend that any firm desiring to conduct a test purchase 
from the Secretary of The American Society of Mechanical Engi- 
neers (29 West 39th Street, New York City) blanks showing 
standards adopted by that Society for use in boiler evaporation 
tests. Either the gravity feed or oil pumping system shown in 
Figs. 97 and 98 may be used to supply the fuel. Scales should be 
used for weighing the fuel in the upper tank. If the gravity feed 
test system is used, the bottom of the lower tank should be at least 
two feet above the level of the burner. 

Steam flow meters provide a means for accurately measuring the 
total flow of steam through pipes or closed conduits, and so furnish- 
ing information of great value in the economical management of 
any manufacturing industry or central station. (See Fig. 100.) 

The most universal differential draft gage devised, for air 
supply control, is this new type of combination (the simplest and 
most valuable instrument introduced) gage. Based on true effici- 
ency, first cost, attention and maintenance, it surpasses all other 
combustion instruments. It is the biggest value ever offered for 
the boiler room. 

By a simple and ingenious system of cross-piping the cover type 
differential gage, a type has been developed whereby the furnace 
draft, the flue draft or the differential between the flue and furnace 
can be indicated on a single gage over the full length of the scale. 



122 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



123 




3 O 



124 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

As the differential gives a greater liquid movement for a given 
variation in air supply than the furnace draft, the gage is 
operated continuously on the differential. The ordinary draft gage 
when connected either to the furnace or to the flue indicates only 




Fig. 100. Indicating, recording, integrating flow meter. (Cut 
used through courtesy of the General Electric Co.) 



a difference in pressure between the furnace or the flue and the 
outside of the setting, and does not serve as a reliable guide to the 
actual amount of air passing through the furnace. 

The air to an oil-burning furnace can be regulated in two ways : 



I 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



125 



by the ash pit doors and by the damper. With the ash pit doors 
wide open and the air regulated by the damper the ordinary type 
draft gage serves very v^ell as an indicator of the amount of air 




Fig. 101. 



C02 recorder. (Shown through courtesy of the 
Jos. W. Hays Corporation.) 



passing through the setting, but should these conditions be re- 
versed, that is, the damper space wide open and the ash pit doors 
partly closed, the indications of the ordinary type draft gage are 



126 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

of no value whatever inasmuch as closing the ash pit doors tends 
to cut down the air and at the same time indicates a higher draft 
pressure. 

With the differential draft gage an increase in air supply from 
any source moves the liquid in but one direction, forward, and a 
decrease in air supply has the opposite effect. Therefore the indi- 
cations of this gage are a sure guide to the amount of air passing 
through the setting regardless of the position of the damper or ash 
pit doors. 

To indicate the varying air supply the outside cocks are open and 
the middle cock is closed, as shown, the liquid operating between 
the air supply pointers as indicated. 

The flue draft is indicated by opening the outside cock and clos- 
ing the other two. 




Fig. 102. Ellison draft gage. (Shown through courtesy of 
Lewis M. Ellison, Chicago, 111.) 

It is advisable to use a steam-flow meter of modern type and 
well known make; also COo recorders and draft gages, and all 
other instruments which will aid in economically and accurately 
burning the fuel. 

Standard adopted by the A. S. M. E. 1 boiler H. P. is equal to an 
evaporation per hour of 30 lbs. of water from 100°F. to 70 lbs. 
pressure, or is equal to 34.5 lbs. of water per hour from and at 
212°F. This is not a measure of power but of evaporation. 

Blast furnace gas is now being used very successfully in both 
large furnaces and boilers. This gas having a calorific value of 
only 90 B.t.u. per cubic foot must be supplied in large quantities, 
and necessarily a large gas burner is used to deliver the gas to 
the boiler or furnace. On account of its low calorific value it is 
also necessary to use either oil or tar as an auxiliary fuel to aid 



STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS 



127 




1 bJO 



128 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

in maintaining the rated horse-power of the boiler and to meet 
the fluctuating loads which the power plant of a works carries. 

Fig. 103 shows a longitudinal mid-section of a boiler using 
blast furnace gas, and also the manner of installing an oil or tar 
burner above the gas burner by which excellent results are ob- 
tained. 



Chapter VIII 

LOW-PRESSURE BOILERS AND HOT AIR 
FURNACES 

There are many different types of hot water boilers, hot air 
heaters and steam boilers carrying only from 2 to 10 pounds steam 
pressure, which are used for heating purposes. Some have cast iron 
elements while others have steel shells. That shown in Fig. 105 is 
a hot water boiler with a steel shell. You will note that there is 
an electric motor which drives a positive pressure blower, supplying 
air for atomization of the fuel. Also this motor operates a small oil 
pump. 

Before attempting to make such an installation, it is advisable to 
take the matter up with the city authorities and the Underwriters 
in order to make sure that you can comply with their requirements. 
Ordinarily the oil tank should be five feet from any building and 
buried three feet underground. If no insurance is carried on the 
building or where such an equipment does not conflict with city 
ordinances, a gravity feed system may be used (see Fig. 109). 

A low pressure burner such as is shown in Fig. 12, Page 36, is 
used in the installations shown in Fig. Nos. 105, 106 and 107 while 
the burner shown in Fig. 108 is of the high pressure type (see Fig. 
10, Page 33) because high pressure air was available in this in- 
stance. Had high pressure air not been available, the same burner 
as used in Fig. 105 would have been required. 

The burner shown in Fig. 109 is of the cascade type, generally 
known as an air carbureting burner. The oil flows down over the 
elements and is consumed as it flows. No atomizing agent is re- 
quired but only very light oil which vaporizes readily can be used 
with this burner, such as kerosene, 36 gravity Beaume crude oil or 
No. 1,2 or 3 distillates. 



129 



130 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




LOW PRESSURE BOILERS AND HOT AIR FURNACES 131 




132 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




LOW PRESSURE BOILERS AND HOT AIR FURNACES 133 




134 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Chapter IX 
COMMERCIAL GAS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

Water gas tar is the by-product from the water gas works, and 
is of very high calorific value having 16,970 B.t.u. per pound which 
is equivalent to 161,200 B.t.u. per gallon, as it weighs 91/2 pounds 
per gallon. It has a higher calorific value per gallon than any other 
liquid fuel except coal tar. It is ordinarily used in boilers, either 
in combination with breeze or poor coal, using a swivel type of 
burner (Fig. 63, page 89), or with the liquid fuel injecting appa- 
ratus (Fig. 91, page 117) or it is used with the same type of boiler 
equipment as crude oil. If the liquid fuel injecting apparatus is 
placed mid-way between the front end of the boiler setting and the 
bridge wall as indicated in Fig. Ill, either coal or oil water gas 
tar may be used exclusively as fuel or they can both be used in com- 
bination. 

There is always more or less difficulty in separating the water 
from the water gas tar. This is done in two ways. One way is by 
the use of a separator made of steel, and in very large gas works 
this is about 17 feet wide x 34 feet long x 5 feet high. Baffle plates 
are placed in this separator 4 feet apart, so that the incoming tar 
and water must flow over the first baffle, then under the second 
baffle, then over the third baffle, under the fourth baffle, etc. 
These baffles may be used and yet success will not be obtained 
unless the water and tar are heated to approximately a temperature 
of 170 degrees F by a coil placed in the bottom of the separator. 
If the water and tar are heated to 190 degrees F, do not use a sep- 
arator at all; or if it is only heated to 150 degrees F better not 
employ any means to separate the water from the tar. You will 
find having the accurate temperature and agitation to be very im- 
portant factors in the separation of water and water gas tar. We 
have mentioned 170 degrees F as this is the temperature required 
when using crude oil of 30 gravity through the carburetors. Of 
course it is obvious that when oil above 30 degrees gravity Baume 
is used through the carburetors of the gas works the tar should be 

185 



136 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




/isiem Ai£/7 




Co A c^/rr£- 



sec) -/a /v y^r ^tS 



m.\ 



^ 




jS/r/ae^ ia/a^ 




/// / // / // y // / /. y/X^/ . - /v . V///^^.^yz^^V,^^.y,^.^V 



Fig. Ill, Liquid fuel injecting apparatus applied to a horizontal return 
tubular boiler. 



COMMERCIAL GAS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



137 




Fig. 112. 

Separator 

(shown 

through 

courtesy of 

Sharpies 

Specialty Co.)c 



138 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

heated to a point proportionately lower than 170 degrees F, and 
when the oil used through the carburetors is of a lower gravity 
than 30 degrees gravity Baume the tar should be heated to a point 
higher than 170 degrees F. It can readily be understood that agi- 
tation and the proper temperature are required to separate the 
water from the tar, but this temperature will vary in accordance 
with the gravity of the oil used through the carburetors. 

Another method that may be employed is by the use of the sep- 
arator shown in Fig. 112 and described below: 

The purpose of the Sharpies Process for the dehydration of 
water gas tar is to recover a marketable product with less than 5 
per cent moisture from water gas tar emulsions that cannot be 
resolved by ordinary measures. 

In small gas plants where it is desired to burn water gas tar 
the gravity feed system is ordinarily used; that is, the bottom of 
the tar tank is placed about 4 feet above the burners and the water 
gas tar is allowed to flow by gravity to the burners. Gravity feed 
is ordinarily used even though the tank may be quite a distance 
from the building and the power plant on the opposite side of the 
street. We have noticed that sometimes the pipes will be so as- 
sembled as to make a vapor pocket. In case it is necessary to as- 
semble the pipes so that the making of a vapor pocket is inevitable, 
be sure to vent the pipe in the manner shown in cut below. 

Place the gauze over the return bend. Without a proper vent be- 
ing placed upon this pipe you will always be troubled with an inter- 
mittent flame. 

CAUTION :— 

In pumping water gas tar or coal tar do not use brass lined 
or brass fitted pumps, such as are used in the pumping of oil, be- 
cause of the fact that there is a chemical action which destroys 
their action in a very short time. Use iron lined pumps having 
iron pistons and other fittings for this purpose. 

When burning water gas tar do not heat it as when burning oil 
below 20 gravity Baume or when burning coal tar, which must be 
heated in order to make it fluid. A circulating system should 
always be used with coal tar as it is high in free carbon. 

Coke oven benches can be operated successfully by the use of 
water gas tar as a fuel, but do not try to use coal tar, as it has been 
found very unsatisfactory because the free carbon contents in the 



COMMERCIAL GAS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 139 




140 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 





COMMERCIAL GAS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 141 

tar stops the flow of oil to the burner in the oil-regulating cock. 
The stream or column of tar passing through the burner is not 
greater than ^2 inch in diameter, and hence the free carbon in a 
few minutes clogs the opening. Of course any grade of crude oil 
can be used in the operation of coke oven benches, a cut of which 
is shown on page 140. 



Chapter X 
SUGAR INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

The use of bagasse as fuel is of course the common practice in 
all sugar centrales, and we take pleasure in showing several dif- 
ferent forms of installations. Some centrales desire to heat the 
bagasse furnace by oil before the bagasse is charged, while others 
prefer to use wood for this purpose. The more modern practice is 
to use oil, but it is not good practice to use oil as fuel in the bagasse 
chamber along with the bagasse using both fuels at the same time, 
owing to the fact that the oil cannot secure sufficient oxygen to 
effect perfect combustion. If bagasse is used the oil burner should 
be installed in the side wall of the fire-box, or in the end wall, as 
shown in accompanying cuts. 

We usually estimate that three gallons of oil are required per ton 
of bagasse burned in order to maintain the boiler rating. If, how- 
ever, it is desired to raise the boiler rating with an oil burner or 
liquid fuel injecting apparatus, you can readily increase the horse- 
power of the boiler to 200 per cent rating. Some of the bagasse 
furnaces are now being built so large that the boiler rating can 
be attained and maintained without the use of oil fuel, but it is 
of course dangerous to depend wholly upon bagasse as fuel for there 
might be an accident which would delay its delivery. It is better 
practice to always be prepared to use oil if necessary, and thus 
insure the successful operation of the plant at all times. 

We ordinarily figure on the calorific value of sugar containing 
7120 B.t.u. as cellulose 7533 B.t.u. and glucose 6748 B.t.u. per 
pound. Taking these heats of combustion as a basis, and assuming 
that the fibre has the same fuel value as the cellulose, it is possible 
to calculate the thermal value of bagasse. Thus a bagasse of com- 
position fibre 42 per cent and sugar 9.666 per cent will afford on 
complete combustion, .42x7533— .0966x7120 or 3821 B.t.u. per 
pound for the fibre and sugar alone, to which must be added that 
due to the glucose and other organic matter. If this be taken as 
one-tenth that due to the sugar (the gross thermal value of the 
sugar) , the gross thermal value of the bagasse will be 3920 B.t.u. 

142 



SUGAR INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



143 




f3 1? 
XI O 

bit ra 



144 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




^3 a 
<u o 






SUGAR INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



145 




146 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




SUGAR INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



147 




148 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 





149 



150 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




per unit of dry matter, and supposing the bagasse contains 47 per 
cent water, 7396 B.t.u. 

The refuse molasses of sugar works can be burned in combination 
with oil through a modern atomizing burner. This by-product 



SUGAR INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 151 

(molasses) is very low in its calorific value, not having more than 
3.400 B.t.u. per pound. 

In sugar refineries oil is also an ideal fuel for char kilns, for its 
use enables you to get a more even distribution of heat than you 
can with coal or coke. 



Chapter XI 
STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Oil is an ideal fuel in steel foundries because you can get the 
maximum output from the furnaces. In ordinary practice using 
producer gas but two heats a day can be obtained from the open 
hearth furnaces, while with oil three heats are the ordinary prac- 
tice. Of course by the use of oil you can maintain better tempera- 
tures than you could hope to obtain from producer gas. 

In changing an open hearth furnace in which originally either 
natural or producer gas has been used, it is necessary to close the 
original gas port at each end of the furnace and build up a dog- 
house of fire-brick. 

The oil burners (if not water-jacketed) are mounted with swivel 
joints so that they can be swung back out of the furnace when not 
needed. The operating valves may be located close to the burner or 
wherever they are most convenient for the operator. When a 
water-cooled type of oil burner is used, it is not necessary to con- 
struct a dog-house on each end of the furnace nor is it necessary to 
remove the burner each time that the furnace is reversed. 

Referring to Figs. 133 and 134 showing manner of applying oil 
to a gas-fired furnace, you will see that the gas regenerators are also 
used to preheat the air in conjunction with the air regenerators, 
the port leading to both regenerators. It is obvious that by utilizing 
both the air and the original gas regenerators, the slag will not 
injure the furnace draft conditions as quickly as when only using 
the air regenerators. 

In a modern oil-fired open-hearth furnace the air is admitted 
immediately under the burner and the end of the furnace should be 
carefully constructed so that the flame made by the burner will fit 
it. (Fig. 135.) 

By means of a small oil furnace, the large ladles used in steel 
foundries can readily be heated to the temperature at which the 
molten metal is poured. When the ladle is heated to the required 
temperature, the cover is removed, the ladle placed in position to 
receive the charge and the little heating furnace swung up out of 

152 



STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



153 



the way. This furnace is mounted with swivel joints and a counter- 
weight. (See Fig. 138). 

In a crucible steel melting furnace of the type shown in Fig. 141, 
the space occupied by the 6 pots at the burner end of the furnace is 




Fig. 126. Open hearth furnace burner. (See Fig. No. 131.) 



termed the "melting zone," while the remaining charging space is 
called "preheating zone." When the metal in the first 6 pots is 
ready to pour, they are removed, poured, and refilled with steel 
punching, while the 8 remaining in the furnace are moved in their 
respective order into the "melting zone." The refilled 6 pots are 



154 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



155 




156 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



157 



then placed in the "preheating zone" of the furnace. This furnace 
is a vast improvement over the old style pan system which was used 
some years ago. Only one burner is required to atomize the oil 
and distribute the heat. 




^ear/o/v ^r f}-ff 



Fig. 130. "Dog house." View looking toward burner end. 



Instead of closing off the draft in the neck of the furnace by the 
old fashioned refractory damper, you will note the flat damper shown 
which is moved horizontally and which simply allows the air to pass 
through an opening, thus retarding the draft in the furnace and at 
the same time the cold air admitted tends to reduce the temperature 
in the flue. This refractory damper can be moved so as to make the 
opening wide open, or just sufl&ciently to give a partial opening as 
necessity demands. This type of damper lasts indefinitely as it can 



158 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



not burn away, and you have a much better control of the furnace. 
It is not necessary to move the crucibles from the "preheating" 
to the "melting zone" if you use the form of furnace construction 
indicated in Fig. 142. This 8-pot furnace is therefore much more 
modern in its construction than the 14-pot furnace. (Fig. 141.) 




i -^ 



B .^z a lujiii 







■r- 



H 






^^^ jieaoee/t 







f/iSSS£/>//K o/t ffAY^rS^/^ 



Fig. 131. Diagram showing burner piping, 
swivel joints, etc. 



In steel foundries oil is especially attractive for large mould- 
drying ovens because of the fact that, if desired, the moulds can 
be dried 50 per cent quicker and more thoroughly than by the use 
of coal, coke or gas. I can almost hear my reader, who is the super- 
intendent of a steel foundry and who has never used oil as fuel 
on his mould-drying ovens say: "I do not care to use a fuel that 



STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



159 




160 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



will heat so quickly, for it would simply ruin the moulds" ; but my 
friend, coal or coke gives a localized heat, whereas by the use of 
the method of burning oil shown in Fig. 143 an absolutely even 
distribution of heat is obtained throughout the entire oven which 




Sfcr/oi^ »rac^ 



Fig. 133. Open hearth furnace, changed from gas-fired to oil. 



in this case is 44 feet long, 20 feet wide and 12 feet high in the 
clear. This oven is operated with only one burner. In the com- 
bustion chamber, which runs through the center of the entire 
length of the oven, a temperature of 2000 degrees Fahrenheit is 
maintained, which insures your securing the highest possible effi- 
ciency from the fuel. You will note also that the combustion 



STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



161 



chamber has heat ports of graduated size and such location as to 
insure an even distribution of heat. The heat ports at the farther 
end of the combustion chamber are smaller than those at the burner 
end. These openings must be carefully figured out, for the suc- 




Fig. 134. View looking toward burner end of furnace. 



cess or failure of the installation depends largely upon these ports. 
The vents for the escape of moisture, also the consumed and 
inert gases, should always be located in the oven roof or arch. 
Never use the old stack method. Give the money ordinarily spent 
for the construction of a stack to the poor of the city or to some 
hospital, where it will be of some service to humanity. 



162 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



163 




164 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



165 




Fig. 138. Ten-ton bottom pour steel foundry ladle heated by a small 
oil furnace which can be swung aside when not needed. 



166 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



167 




168 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

















**1 


















; 










/ 




















/ 




\ 










\ 








■; { ■';- 










■i/-l 


■"I 






1 










! ( 


■|5 (h) 




z 




■)-^^:^ 




a 






\ '' \ 


\ 






ift •— 1— 


i) -: .) 








l|::f 


iiilci:;- 


M 






INI 1 












<B , 






:: "rrW 


i ^- 






■' m 


i=33r 








-f- 


= 








^' s 










H 








V 


'' f 










'^ t 










; li- 










— ii 


— 








± 


^ 


. 



STEEL FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



169 





El 



m 



IM 



170 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



r 



■ ^*n 1 r* • 



3- 



l lllllllll lll l l ll l l l l l ll l ll -l-tihHIHIH 




^^. 



Fig. 143. Mould drying oven 44 feet long, 20 feet wide by 12 feet high in 
the clear, operated with one burner. 



Chapter XII 

HEAT-TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 

In the heat-treatment of steel we must remember that the value 
of the steel depends wholly upon the heat-treatment which it re- 
ceives. Steel is not like copper, but is a very complex artificial 




Fig. 146. An indirect-fired furnace. 



product. In its annealed state a piece of .90 carbon tool steel is 
composed of ferrite and pearlite, but these minerals are decom- 
posed when heated to certain temperatures and others formed. 
For example, in heat-treating this tool steel there is no perceptible 

171 



172 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



change until 1360 Fahrenheit is reached ; but if the temperature is 
increased to 1460, ferrite and pearlite have been decomposed and 
martensite is formed. Quenching at this point preserves the mar- 
tensitic condition and the metal is hard and brittle. In carbon 
steel, martensite is very sensitive to heat and decomposes readily, 
i. e., if the steel is heated sufficiently martensite disappears and 




Fig. 147. View showing the heat in an indirect-fired furnace passes 
from the heat chamber through graduated heat ports. 



ferrite and pearlite are again formed. For every variation of 
heat there is a variation in the grain of the metal. This steel an- 
neals between 1300 and 1350 degrees Fahrenheit. 

How^ important it is, therefore, to have a furnace of such con- 
struction that the temperature in any portion of the charging 
space does not vary more than 10 degrees Fahrenheit. 



HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



173 



For the average size indirect-fired furnace only one burner 
should be used, but for a furnace approximately 18 feet wide, 22 
feet long x 7 feet high (Fig. 151), two burners are required. More 
than two burners should not be used, for it is impossible to regu- 
late a larger number of burners so as to have the heat as evenly 
distributed throughout the entire length and width of the furnace 
as it should be in order to perfectly heat-treat the metal. If this 
is important in the annealing or tempering of steel, it is equally 
as essential in the case-hardening of metals. 



CAff/ir/A/o /ROM nn c/iA/ves 




Fig. 148. View showing heat ports of an indirect-fired furnace. 



An indirect-fired furnace is not suitable for the heat-treatment 
of high speed alloy steel, for this requires a much higher tempera- 
ture than carbon steel. As the temperature should be above 2000 
degrees Fahrenheit, I recommend a direct-fired furnace having 
combustion chamber of such form and proportions as to insure the 
ignition of the oxygen necessary for perfect combustion with the 
atomized fuel before it reaches the furnace proper, thereby reduc- 
ing the oxidation of the metal to the minimum. 

Since it is true that the value of steel depends wholly upon the 



174 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 







, 









A- crc BOLT rot) 

cf»if^£ i/rrs 




Fig. 149. Direct-fired furnace with preheating chamber for high-speed tool 

steel. 



HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



175 



heat-treatment it receives, to obtain the desired results it is essen- 
tial to establish and maintain an even temperature throughout the 
entire length and width of the furnace. For the heat-treatment 
of carbon steel, which requires an indirect-fired furnace, this can 
only be done by means of graduated heat ports. Only one burner 




Fig. 150. Double shell annealing furnace. 



should be used, the heat therefrom passing from the fire chamber 
into the charging space of the furnace through graduated heat 
ports substantially as shown in Fig. 148. As long as the fuel and 
atomizer supply remain constant, the burner, without any adjust- 
ment will operate without causing the slightest variation in the 
temperature of the charging space. This type of furnace should be 



176 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



used for all classes of annealing, case-hardening and tempering 
where the metal must be kept away from the direct flame. The 




4: ^ 



,A,.,,^,L^,, 



iMl 



fn 



^V^ , ,,.^ .... I J 



jsa 



-7 



. Ly...,.,:...:.-^ , ..^. .. : :,a.., ^ ^^ ^r^^'„ , .^. ., J . . '^' JW ^ 



l^y ' v^y " #r~ ^ — #r "f ^^^ 



SecT'Cn /rr ses-f ^■"^ Type C/ise H/iKoemrK & Anne»i.inc finrruiet 

Fig. 151. Indirect-fired car annealing furnace. 



size and the location of the heat ports is an engineering problem 
requiring most careful consideration. If they are not scientifically 



HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



177 



and accurately proportioned the incoming air used for the atomiza- 
tion of the fuel or to support combustion will cause an excessive 
heat at the end of the furnace opposite the burner. 




Fig. 152. Shaft annealing furnace, car type, modern construction. 



For high-speed tool steel a direct-fired furnace is necessary. The 
more modern types have a preheating chamber above the charging 
space ; the waste gases from the lower chamber passing up into the 



178 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



preheating chamber slowlj^ preheat the charge before it is passed 
into the furnace proper, thus preventing the too sudden expansion 
of the metal (see cut, Fig. 149). 

Each of the two ovens of the double shell annealing furnace (Fig. 



^ 


i 


r r- f 


y~ 












—^ i:;^ 






--^ 




1 


^S?Sf^ 


















s 




1 
















' T — 








■? "'"" 


"" ■ "" 




,' 


i 




t ' 








i 












% 












"1 




— 




^ 




5 










i""' 






i 


^U-—- 


J^.^_.._^__.^^ 






















Fig. 153. Car annealing furnace, overhead oil-fired, operated with only one 

burner. 



150) requires a burner. These ovens are heated from below and 
the perforated cast iron drums are revolved by power. The drums 
roll out on the brackets in front to charge or empty the shells. 

The end walls of the double car annealing furnace shown in Fig. 
151 are carried on the cars, so it is a very simple matter to pull 



HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



179 



the cars in and out of the furnace. While two cars are being heat- 
treated, others are being filled and made ready for charging and in 
this way the furnace is operated continuously. This furnace re- 
quires two burners, one in each of the farther corners. 

The car-type shaft annealing furnace (Fig. 152) is of most 
modern construction. It is so built that by means of the heat ports, 




W/TH /^OTAKY TABLE 



Fig. 154. Annealing furnace, 7 ft. square, with 



rotary table. 



the heat is evenly distributed. It can be operated to maintain the 
temperature required at all times and that temprature will not vary 
more than ten degrees in any portion of the entire length and width 
of the charging space. 

By means of differential gears the speed of the rotary table shown 
in Fig. 154 is regulated according to the size of the stock being 



180 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 




182 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 183 

heat-treated, so that when the table has made one revolution, the 
charge is ready to be removed from the furnace. 

By means of either an air jack or a hydraulic ram, the 155mm. 
shells, placed one against the other, are forced down the ways as 



Fig. 158. Lead, oil or solution bath furnace. 



indicated in Figs. 155 and 156. They are heated as they pass 
through the furnace and after attaining the required temperature, 
they automatically drop into the bath. From this bath they are 
carried into the drawing furnace, which is immediately opposite 
the heat-treating furnace in which they were subjected to the higher 
temperature. Only one burner is required on this heat-treating 
furnace, the combustion chamber being of adequate proportions for 
the consumption of the atomized fuel and the even distribution of 
the heat. 

The cold punched nuts or cold headed rivets and bolts are charged 
into the chute at the burner end of the rotary furnace shown in 
Fig. 157 and annealed while passing through the revolving furnace. 
They then drop into the hopper, placed under the farther end of 
the furnace. 

The type of furnace shown in Fig. 158 is used in the heat-treat- 
ment of steel because it reduces oxidization to the minimum. The 



184 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



pot or receptacle used for the bath may be round or oblong or what- 
ever shape and size is most desirable. The tangential flame encir- 
cles the pot so that the heat is evenly distributed. The operator has 
the fire under perfect control and can attain and maintain the tem- 
perature required to perfectly heat-treat the metal. After once 
being set, the burner will operate continuously without the slightest 
variation as long as the oil and air supply remain constant. The 
burner requires either crude or fuel oil and compressed air. Vol- 
ume or fan air should be used through the volume air nozzle under 
the burner. 

For temperatures up to 1600 deg. Fahrenheit, lead is sometimes 
used as the bath and it is also sometimes used in drawing steel at 




Fig. 159. Semi-pit furnace with bung arch for annealing, case-hardening 
or heat treating. 



700 deg. For a solution bath for temperatures ranging from 1400 
to 1600 deg. a good mixture is three parts Barium Chloride and two 
parts Potassium Carbonate. Where a very low temperature is 
required. Sodium Silicate is used as the melting point of this is 113 
deg. Fahrenheit. Sodium melts at 572 deg. and Zinc at 504 deg. 
Fahrenheit. 

The bung arch on the Semi-pit Furnace (Fig. 159) can be re- 
moved with a crane or an air hoist. The charging space of this 
furnace is twelve feet long by five feet wide and four feet high. It 
is operated with only one burner. 

Many manufacturers prefer to have their furnaces constructed 
in their works by their own or a local mason. They usually pur- 



HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



185 



chase the furnace designs, together with 
the oil burner equipment from engi- 
neer in that line of business. The small 
angle or heat-treating furnace of semi- 




i ---- - ---': j. 

U I :i 

I j. ^ -^ --- .- --, 



Fig. 160. Small angle or heat-treating furnace of semi-muffle type. 



186 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

muffle type, shown in Fig. 160, is one which can readily be con- 
structed in this manner and is a very well proportioned furnace 
for a small plant. 

The pit type furnace for steel foundry castings (Fig. 161) is six- 
teen feet wide, twenty-four feet long and six feet four inches to 
the bung, is operated with only one burner and is of such construc- 
tion that the waste gases pass out from the base of the furnace 
through vent ports. 

It is often necessary to change a coal or coke-fired furnace to oil- 
fired. In many cases this can readily be done by simply construct- 
ing a combustion chamber in the firebox and bricking up the firing 
door as shown in Fig. 163. 

A few years ago but little attention was paid to the annealing of 
grey iron castings. However, experience has taught us the neces- 
sity of removing as far as possible all strains from these castings. 
The declined hearth furnace (Fig. 164) has been constructed for 
the annealing of various sizes of cast iron pipe. The arch is pro- 
vided with two doors (located, one on either side of the burner) 
which can be raised just sufficiently to admit the various sizes of 
pipe. 

In Fig. 165, we have a battery of three furnaces for heat-treating 
automobile springs. First, there is the high temperature furnace in 
which the stock is charged before being bent. Number two is the 
heat-treating furnace in which the flat springs, after being bent, 
are charged and heated to approximately 1640 deg. Fahrenheit. 
The quenching tank is not shown, but after being quenched, the 
springs are charged into furnace number three where they are 
drawn to 680 deg. This battery of furnaces is ideal for a repair 
plant but of course it is at all times necessary for the plant metal- 
lurgist to determine the temperatures required as these will vary 
according to the carbon content of the steel. 

The use of hot-air furnaces for drawing steel (Fig. 166) has had 
a remarkable growth during the past two years, because they are 
clean and admirably adapted for the distribution of heat. More- 
over they can be located in a small building some distance from the 
factory if desired, or they can be installed in the basement or in 
any other portion of the building or factory. There is no fuel 
superior to oil for this class of service. 



HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



187 




188 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



I hope I have made it clear in the heat-treatment of metals of 
the need of the following : 

1st — The combustion chambers must be of adequate proportions 
to deliver the quantity of heat generated in them to the furnace 




HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 189 




Fig. 163. Coal or coke-fired heat-treating furnace changed to oil-fired. 



190 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



proper, and by the aid of the 
burner given even distribu- 
tion of heat throughout the 
entire length and width of the 
furnace. 

2nd — The burner must pro- 
duce a flame which fits the 
combustion chamber per- 
fectly, — as perfectly as a 
drawer fits its opening in a 
desk. 

3rd — The use of the min- 
imum number of burners in a 
furnace. 

I have no patience with that 
type of engineering which will 
put say six burners on one 
side and eight burners on the 
other side of a furnace, and if 
that does not give the required 
temperature, put in some 
more burners. That is mere 
guesswork — not engineering 
at all ! 

The combustion engineer 
who, knowing the era of a 
heat-treating furnace, and 
who, after having been given 
information by the metallurg- 
ist of the plant as to the 
length of the metal to be 
charged into the furnace, 
weight of same, and the 
length of time this metal is to 
remain in the furnace, cannot 
figure the amount of oil and 
amount of air required to 
bring that metal to the re- 
quired temperature within a 
given length of time, is not 




HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 



191 



worthy of the name of "combustion engineer". He is a leech, yes, an 
enemy of society. He is like the so-called engineers who strive to 
obtain a great deal of information from a practical engineer, and 
then sell that information to an unsuspecting client. I have no pa- 
tience with such enemies of society, nor would I allow them their 
liberty in any State in the Union if I had my way. 




Fig. 165. Battery of three automobile spring heat-treating furnaces. 

To-day an engineer must know his business. He cannot apologize 
for anything, for knowledge is power and his power depends upon 
his practical knowledge which he gives his client to benefit the 
world. The man who does not make his contribution honestly 
should not live. He should be a benefit to the world in his chosen 
profession, — not a curse. 



192 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



— --/t 




HEAT TREATING FURNACE PRACTICE 193 

There are a great many people who can write articles or treatises 
on how to weld two pieces of metal together, but were they asked 
by their clients to make a weld they would fail miserably. The 
average manufacturer who desires to remain in business for any 
length of time and who wants the assurance of being able to con- 
tinue to prosper, needs men who can demonstrate the truth of 
their statements and who can prove their premises rather than 
merely give theories. 



Chapter XIII 

MALLEABLE IRON, GREY IRON AND 
BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Many attempts to burn liquid fuel in Air Furnaces have failed 
because of the operator not being able to melt the full charge or 
to get the metal as hot as when burning coal. Often the charge 
was oxidized to such extent that what metal did become molten 
was practically worthless. Usually a number of burners, each 
giving a round flame, have been placed in the side-wall of the 
furnace, and as the number of burners was increased the equip- 
ment became more and more intricate. Something had to take 
the blame for the wasted time, material and effort, so oil was con- 
demned as being unworthy of further consideration. 

As oil has a much higher calorific value than coal the natural 
conclusion is that it ought to be able to melt the metal in a much 
shorter period of time. Not only that, but it should also be able 
to bring the metal to the temperature required for even the small- 
est castings. It can do both if properly applied, and, furthermore, 
the quality of the metal is improved, for by chemical analysis and 
numerous tests it has been found that the castings contain no 
more sulphur than the metal did when charged into the furnace, 
and the tensile strength is consequently greater than that of metal 
melted by coal fire. As the melter has the furnace under perfect 
control the heats can be taken off much quicker than while burning 
coal and the temperature of the charge while being tapped can be 
maintained without varying more than 25 degrees Fahrenheit 
until all the charge has been run from the furnace. The operation 
of skimming is materially decreased — this is a very noticeable im- 
provement which is especially appreciated by the melter. The 
high calorific value of oil also enables the melter to estimate within 
a few minutes the exact time when the charge will be ready to tap, 
which is a great contrast to conditions while burning coal, espe- 
cially in rainy weather, when climatic conditions are unfavorable 
and the stack draft is materially affected. 

The change from coal to oil is a very simple matter. In the 

194 



IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



195 



^ i- 




t^i5 



196 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 197 

original fire-box I construct a combustion chamber of such form 
and proportions that the air necessary for perfect combustion can 
unite with the atomized fuel before it reaches the furnace, which 
prevents oxidization of the charge. Also this chamber causes the 
heat to be deflected upon the entire surface of the bath. In the 
end of the combustion chamber I place a hydro-carbon burner 
which makes a fan-shaped blaze, filling the entire chamber with 
flame. A very small quantity of compressed air is used through 
the burner to atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, while the 
balance of the air necessary for perfect combustion is supplied at 
from 3 to 6 ounce pressure through a volume air nozzle. 

The furnace is charged in the usual manner. The burner is 
started by opening the air valve, holding a piece of burning waste 
(which has been well saturated with kerosene) by means of a pair 
of pick-up tongs under the burner and then turning on the oil. 
The operation is so very simple that one must see it in order to 
appreciate that you can get as intense heat with it in a few minutes 
as from burning coal for several hours. 

The reduction in the time required to get the charge ready for 
tapping is not the only point wherein oil is more economical than 
coal. There is no handling of fuel and ashes, consequently the 
services of the fireman and coal passers are dispensed with. There 
is great saving in floor space, for the oil tank is placed underground 
and the former coal bins used for other purposes. The fire-brick 
lining of the furnace lasts 20 per cent longer than with coal. Poor 
castings or imperfect ones caused by the metal being cool or 
sluggish are obviated entirely, for with liquid fuel the question is 
not "How hot can you make the metal?" but "How hot do you wish 
it?" All these items should be taken into consideration when com- 
paring the relative costs of using oil and coal in air furnaces. 

During years of close observation I have particularly noticed 
one point in this class of service. It is this. Using the combustion 
chamber herein described, a burner giving a flame to fit this com- 
bustion chamber and admitting volume air through an air nozzle 
located below the burner insures not only the hottest portion of 
the furnace being where it is most needed, viz. : the bath or charg- 
ing space, but also the elimination of the detrimental eifect of any 
sulphur which may be in the oil or tar. This is accomplished with 
this construction for the following reason, — the air admitted be- 
tween the flame and the bath or charge must pass through the 



198 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



199 



atomized consuming fuel and thus the sulphur is consumed before 
it reaches the furnace proper. The gases rising therefrom being 
lighter quickly ascend to the arch of the furnace. If, however, the 
air is admitted around the burner or above the burner, and no com- 
bustion chamber is used, the sulphur is not consumed in the manner 
above described, but is absorbed by the metal. 

Strange to relate, the first air furnace in which oil was success- 
fully burned was located on the identical spot where the first mal- 
leable iron was made in the United States by Seth Boy den at 28 
Orange Street, Newark, New Jersey. 



Putttftr iVircM^MO . 




<S£cr/a/i^'9r: /)/f 



Fig. 172. Fire-box of air furnace equipped with 
liquid fuel injecting apparatus. 

Figure 170 shows an air furnace such as is used in 
foundries in which rolls are made. The rolls are rolled in at the 
end door of the furnace when it is cold. The doors are then mudded 
up so that the furnace will be hermetically sealed, and the burner 
operated. Oil in this practice has many advantages over other 
fuels owing to the fact that the temperature of the metal may be 
maintained at all times, which is very important in this practice. 
Of course pyrometers should always be used on the furnaces, as 
it is very important that the metal does not become too hot before 
being poured into the molds. 



200 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

Air furnace with bung top (Fig. 171) for melting grey iron. 
With this construction the oxidation of the metal is reduced to 
the minimum, and since it is a fact that variations of 400 to 500 
degrees Fahrenheit make a different metal, it is very important 
to use an optical pyrometer upon these furnaces. It is a well- 
known fact that by varying the temperature of grey iron 200 de- 
grees Fahrenheit you make a new metal. It is therefore impor- 
tant to have all portions of the bath at practically the same tem- 
perature. This can be effected in an air furnace because immedi- 
ately after the metal has become molten it reverberates and is kept 
in a constant state of agitation until ready to pour. 

Some day not far in the future oil will find its place in every grey- 
iron foundry in the United States. At present cupolas are used, 
but every one realizes that cast iron belongs to an unruly family 
and that it is materially affected by high or low temperatures. 
Again, the oxidation of the metal in coke-fired cupolas is excessive ; 
but with an air furnace or other types of oil furnaces oxidation is 
reduced to a minimum; the temperature of metal desired can be 
attained and maintained without variation from day to day regard- 
less of climatic conditions, etc. I have prophesied that there is a 
great future for oil in this particular service, but like every other 
new idea it takes time and thought to fully develop it. 

The liquid fuel injecting apparatus is sometimes used in air 
furnaces in which coal is used as a fuel. The oil is used in combina- 
tion with the coal in order to bring the temperature up as quickly 
as possible. The apparatus is placed on the end of the furnace, 
substantially as shown in Fig. 172. 

In the design of a furnace for the melting of malleable iron it is 
absolutely essential to have the combustion chamber of certain 
proportions in order to insure the consumption of the atomized 
fuel before reaching the bath, for if any unmixed air is admitted 
into the melting zone of the furnace it means not only loss of metal 
by oxidation, but also the burning out of the silicon in the metal. 

I know a great number of experiments have been made in the 
equipment of malleable iron furnaces using oil burners that make 
a round flame, and also using a number of these burners; but 
practice shows the fallacy of using such nefarious methods. If a 
man were to state to you that he could send you a round drawer 
that would fit an oblong opening in your desk, you would know he 
was lying to you, and such is the case if some one tells you that 



IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 201 

he can make a round flame fit a flat surface. We have had a great 
deal of experience in this line. Also if the writer has ever learned 
anything after 30 years' experience in the burning of liquid fuel 
it is that it is absolutely essential to have a combustion chamber on 
a melting or heat-treating furnace. This is as necessary as it is 
to have an oil burner, and it is also absolutely necessary to have the 
flame of that burner fit the combustion chamber as perfectly as 
a drawer fits an opening in a desk. 

If it is essential to use a superior quality of fuel for the melting 
of the metal for malleable iron castings, it is just as essential to 
have that metal properly annealed. The old-fashion coal-fired 
oven which often has a difference in temperature of from 350 de- 
grees Fahrenheit to 400 degrees Fahrenheit between the top and 
bottom of the oven will soon have to be replaced by modern anneal- 
ing equipment of such construction that the oven will not vary in 
temperature over 10 degrees Fahrenheit. The practice of striving 
to overcome the detrimental uneven temperature of the oven by 
placing a small casting in the lower box and gradually increasing 
the size so that the largest castings are placed in the upper box, 
should be discontinued. We all know that you cannot charge a 
furnace by this method and get desired results, for this practice 
is just as disappointing as it is to buy a box of strawberries and 
find the fine berries on the top while those at the bottom are small 
and green, or possibly decayed. 

If any metal is to be heat-treated it should be heat-treated 
properly. This can only be done by having the proper tempera- 
tures. I am very well aware that many old style ovens have a 
number of tunnels below the charging space, but these are ex- 
amined only once in every 3 or 4 years, and are often found to be 
clogged with broken refractory material which of course gives very 
disappointing results. I have often spoken with men who inform 
me that the ovens were heated at the bottom because the heat 
radiated from these gas flues upwardly through refractory ma- 
terial, and heated the bottom of the oven. This is impossible. Such 
statements are not rational if the oven has to come to temperature 
in a given length of time. 

For a number of years oil has been used for the melting of brass 
and kindred alloys but unfortunately direct-fired oil furnaces were 
recommended for this purpose which resulted in the alloys, which 
melt at a lower temperature than copper, being sacrificed, thus 



202 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



203 




204 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



causing an irreparable loss in metal, to say nothing of the attend- 
ant change in the composition of the metal. It was indeed a sad 
day when crucible furnaces were discarded for the direct-fired oil 
furnace, but now, thanks to the ability and fighting qualities of 
young metallurgists in (or who should be in) every brass foundry, 
we are again returning to crucible melting furnaces. In Fig. 177 is 
shown a modern crucible brass melting furnace, six-pot capacity. 
You will note that the furnace is reversible. That is, one burner 
is in operation until the metal in the three crucibles in the first 
chamber is ready to pour, and during this time the waste gases 
passing in through the second chamber on their way to the stack 



ATOM/Z/A/G vALl/a-^ 
OH MLl/e-^ ^ 



0/L fi£OULAT/NG 
COC/c 




Fig. 175. 



View showing the proper place to hold the torch for light- 
ing a furnace burner. 



have preheated the metal in the second chamber, thus using the 
waste gases as much as possible. After the metal in the first cham- 
ber has been poured and the crucibles refilled, the dampers to stack 
are reversed, the plates over burner openings reversed and the 
second burner is started. The first chamber then becomes the pre- 
heating chamber. The heat in the flue to stack is utilized to pre- 
heat the incoming air. Note the combination of the damper or air 
opening in flue with the flue damper. The apparatus is so 
arranged that when the flue damper is closed a lug automatically 



IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 205 




, ^f^ 


P 1 


F 1 




^ ll 


^ 


5t 


^^r~ 









^- 




__^^^ 




— 


^ 


















... 






'^^cZ-S"' 











Z3 





i; • 
























































^^j,-^ 




..-.^^„^., 




!8 








\ 


^ 




8- . 












^^''°°'" 
k 


-"- 


^ _ 


■- 












































4'/0- ! 


— ""^- 


_. 






— 





-__ 









i»^ 


Y^ 











— ^ 




\ ^lo' 


.. 1 

1 


11 


^ 


r ^ 


k i 


V ,,_,„. J 


k ^ 


fei= 




~ 


4- I 




Fig. 176. Malleable iron annealing furnace. 



206 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



raises the air damper on top of the flue so that the air is preheated 
while passing through the flue to burner end of furnace then in 
operation. By this means the air necessary for perfect combustion 
is preheated by heat which would simply have been wasted in the 
ordinary type of furnace construction. Convenient means are 
provided for operating both dampers and covers. This furnace 




Fig. 177. A modern six-pot brass melting furnace. 



is constructed for various sizes and numbers of crucibles and be- 
sides being efficient and economical it reduces the loss in metal to 
the minimum. 

Scrap brass is charged into the four-ton melting furnace shown 
in Fig. 178, made molten by the heat from the one burner and 
poured into ingots. After being analyzed by the metallurgist, these 



IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 207 




208 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



209 



ingots are stacked in their respective order ready to be melted in 
crucible furnaces. The combustion chamber, you will note, is of 
adequate proportions to reduce the loss of metal through oxidiza- 



W °-'"' 



M_aj[ii ji [i iii[NMjy^aHHNpj^i^rifiam^_a I p a pri 




B E3 Q 



: : 



; s 




Fig. 180. Furnace for annealing or heat-treatment of sheet copper or brass 



tion to the minimum. Yellow brass must be melted very carefully. 
To prevent excessive loss of metal, a neutral flame should be main- 
tained at all times and this can only be done by using just one 
burner and a combustion chamber of adequate proportions. 



210 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

In order to obtain the required alloy within one-half of one per 
centum, it is necessary to use crucible furnaces, of which a battery, 
changed from coke to oil-fired, is shown in Fig. 179. 

In small foundries an oil-fired crucible furnace (Fig. 181), 
is used for melting brass, copper and other alloys. The capacity 
of this furnace is either a No. 60, No. 70 or No. 80 crucible. This 
furnace has a combustion chamber of such form and proportions 
that the tangential flame and heat encircles the crucible and is 
evenly distributed without any cutting effect upon the crucible. 
The air necessary for perfect combustion unites with the consum- 




Fig, 181. Single oil-fired crucible furnace for brass melting, etc. 



ing fuel in the combustion chamber before it reaches the crucible ; 
thus the life of the crucible is prolonged because of oxidation being 
reduced to the minimum. 

For the annealing or heat-treatment of sheet copper or brass in 
rolling mills it is essential that the furnace be accurately and evenly 
heated, and for this purpose oil, scientifically applied, is a fuel 
which cannot be surpassed. In a furnace about 8 feet 6 inches 
wide by 30 feet long two burners should be installed, while for a 
smaller furnace only one burner is required. I know some firms 
have equipped these furnaces by installing a large battery of 
burners, but the results have always been unsatisfactory as the 
complicated operation of all these burners is simply a source of 
worry to the operator. 



IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 211 

Figure 182 illustrates manner of equipping an ordinary Core 
or Mold Drying oven in which coke or coal has heretofore been 
used. One burner is placed in the former ash pit of each fire-box, 
and the combustion of the fuel is so perfect that no soot ever settles 
on the cores. The Controlling Valves and Oil Regulating Cock, you 
will note, are placed in positions convenient for the operator. As the 
operator has the fire under perfect control, he can dry the material 
as quickly or as slowly as is desired. Liquid fuel gives a more 
penetrating heat than coal or coke, and it has been found, that, if 
desired, as many cores can be dried in twenty-five minutes as in 




Fig. 182. Core or mold drying oven changed from coke or coal to oil-fired. 

three hours while using coal as fuel. This shows an old fashion 
type of core oven in which coke or poor coal was originally used 
as a fuel. The fire-box is utilized as a heat chamber. 

We always recommend the modern type of core oven where 
the combustion chamber runs longitudinally with the length of 
the oven and has graduated heat ports, as this insures an even heat 
at the base of the oven and distributes same from each side of the 
combustion chamber. The heat radiates upwardly and the oven 
is vented through the arch or roof of the oven as shown in Fig. 183. 



212 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



In molding or core drying ovens it is absolutely necessary to use 
a recording instrument to record the temperature attained and 




maintained in the oven. A great saving of fuel is thus effected and 
all guesswork eliminated. There should be dampers provided for 
the heat ports of the long battery of Millet Ovens shown in Fig. 185, 



IRON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



213 



so that the supply of heat for each individual oven may be con- 
trolled according to requirements. 

For ladle heating oil in steel foundries, grey-iron foundries, 




malleable iron foundries, brass foundries, etc., is far superior to all 
other fuels. The various metals must be heated to certain temper- 
atures before being poured, and one of the new theories advanced 
during the past few years is that the ladles should be heated to 
approximately the temperature at which the metal is poured. This 



214 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




lEON AND BRASS FOUNDRY PRACTICE 215 

sounds reasonable for if it is essential that the metal be at a cer- 
tain temperature when poured, it is also equally important that 
it be not chilled while being poured into the ladles. Oil is the fuel 
whereby the ladles can be properly heated to the same temperature 
as the molten metal. 

A ladle-heating furnace is shown in Fig. No. 138 of Chapter 11. 



Chapter XIV 
MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 

The blacksmith requires more judgment than any other trades- 
man. He has always been kno^\^l to historj-. In the Bible we are 
told of Tubal-Cain, that ancient forger of cutting instruments of 
brass and iron. He evidently was not only a man of bra^vn but 
also of brains, for he was the maker of articles having great ten- 
sile strength. He was a scientist who knew the value of heat and 
made his contribution to the world. His name has been immor- 
talized because of his knowledge of heat and metals. 

Heat is the most complex subject in the world we have to deal 
with, and our meager knowledge of it is the only thing that has 
separated us from the brute. "The Village Blacksmith," was the 
subject of a poem written by our great American poet, Henry W. 
Longfellow. It is a poetic gem, greatly admired by not only the 
members of this craft but also by all lovers of poetrj*. The black- 
smith is found in everj' shop to-day where iron and steel are used. 
He has been one of the indispensable tradesmen in every clime 
and age until now he is a world-power and manufacturing genius 
To-day a successful forgeman must have a practical knowledge of 
mechanics, for powerful machinery- must be used in modern forge 
shops, and as the day of the Village Blacksmith has long since 
passed, he must also have a knowledge of metallurgy', of drop and 
steam hammering, forging machines, etc. He must also have a 
knowledge of instruments recording accurate temperatures as these 
instruments must be used in heat-treating furnaces, for the value 
of steel depends upon its heat-treatment. Also, the study of fuels 
and furnace construction is necessarj- for modern shop practice. 

Various fuels demand different forms of furnace construction, 
and I am frank to say without fear of contradiction that more 
development has been made in furnace construction in the last five 
years than from the time of Tubal-Cain up to 1915. The metal- 
lurgist of a plant demands whatever improvements in furnace con- 
struction will produce the highest quality of metal, and perfect 
radiation of heat can only be accomplished by scientific furnace 

216 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 217 

construction and intelligent operation of same. The day of guess- 
work, such as heating metals to a cherry red or indigo blue, has 
vanished, having given place to recording pyrometers in order that 
the steel of certain alloys may have the proper heat treatment. The 
metallurgist is now an indispensable man in a modern forge shop. 

The dominant fuel of the various ages has been used by the 
craftsmen of each generation, but to-day oil is accepted as the 
incomparable fuel for forging and heat-treating of metals. 

Fuel from the beginning of civilization has been the developer 
of tribes and nations. In the more remote days when one tribe 
wished to overpower another their first effort was to destroy the 
fire of the other tribe, and after the destruction of the hearth fire 
the tribe sustaining the loss became enslaved to the victorious 
tribe. It is still true in national life that the nation which con- 
serves its fuel is the dominant nation on earth. It always has 
been and always will be. 

This is the petroleum age, and liquid fuel has been found to 
be superior to coal or other solid fuels. The nation which con- 
trols and intelligently conserves this, the world's greatest mineral 
resource, will be the most powerful nation on earth. Its people 
will be the most prosperous and happy. I hope that the heat from 
the fuel will be tempered by love so that it may be a nation which 
will use its power for good, governing with righteousness its 
people and bringing a reign of peace to the world. 

Unfortunately the World War has created a great demand for 
this fuel in marine service and our Government has equipped 
many boilers on vessels without making any preparations for a 
change back from oil to coal. The result is that the makers of 
iron and steel forgings of all kinds are in great need of oil. Many 
forge plants have had to change back to coal, which, of course, 
meant a deterioration in the quality of their product. The United 
States of America is a great manufacturing country, and if it is 
to continue to hold its reputation as such the manufacturers must 
be given oil as fuel at reasonable prices even though the Navy 
Department has to return to coal. This is necessary in order that 
the manufacturers be able to put forth a maximum output of a 
quality superior to that produced by coal. A plant using oil in 
its forging and heat-treating furnaces can turn out 100 per cent. 
more work of a better quality than that of a plant using coal as 
a fuel. The United States produces 62 per cent, of the world's 



218 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

oil production, and yet, strange to say, the manufacturers are in 
great need of this fuel. To change from coal to oil in a manufac- 
turing plant is like changing a tallow candle for an incandescent 
light. The writer sees no reason why the Navy should use oil if 
this fuel is in such a demand by the manufacturers of our country, 
for in marine boiler service on ocean-going vessels it requires 180 
gallons of oil to represent a long ton (2240 pounds) of coal having 
a calorific value of 14,000 B.t.u. per pound, while in forging 
furnaces it requires only 82 gallons of oil to represent a ton of 
this same grade of coal. In heat-treating furnaces from 62 to 68 
gallons of oil represent a ton of coal of the calorific value above 
referred to. Of course labor is saved by the use of oil in the 
operation of marine boilers, but the saving does not begin to 
compare with that effected while operating furnaces with oil in 
forge shops. 

The recent war has revealed to foreign nations the value of 
oil as fuel, and they are now making great efforts to secure this 
fuel. England is a great manufacturing country and has a grave 
responsibility in manufacturing goods for her colonial posses- 
sions. She is doing all in her power to secure as much of this fuel 
as possible, and will use it in her factories. The nations which 
conserve their oil and use it in the manufacture of metals will be 
the great manufacturing nations of the future owing to the fact 
that they will get the maximum quality and quantity of output. 
I believe that merit always tells. This is just as true as that a drop 
forging has a higher tensile strength than a casting of the same 
proportions. No nation using coal for manufacturing purposes 
can compare with a nation using oil. I want to make this very 
plain and record this in time to make history. Therefore I am 
sounding a note of warning at this particular time. To-day the 
watchwords of all forgemen are: first, QUALITY; second, AC- 
CURACY of form; and third, QUANTITY. These three points 
merit the consideration of the purchaser, and firms using these as 
their motto will merit the kind consideration and patronage of 
those who desire such material. 

I know it is the sincere wish of the manufacturers that the 
Government co-operate with them in procuring liquid fuel at rea- 
sonable rates so that the manufacturing interests of our country 
may be protected and a maximum output of superior quality pro- 
duced, in order that our products may merit not only the attention 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 219 

and consideration of the people of the United States but also that 
of the entire world. This can be accomplished only by giving 
manufacturers the fuel by which they can do this, and that is 
liquid fuel, although I prophesy that at no distant date a combina- 
tion of coal and oil will be used in order to conserve both coal and 
oil and eliminate smoke in many practices at present unknown to 
the public, but we will not deal with this subject at great length 
here. 

The manufacturers in that section of our country which is lo- 
cated along the Atlantic Coast will be compelled to use a low gravi- 
ty oil, coming from Mexico, where it is produced in great quan- 
tities. This varies in gravity from 11 degrees to and including 
16 degrees gravity Baume, but averages about 12 degrees. As 
this oil is high in sulphur contents combustion chambers must be 
used in order to eliminate the sulphur as much as possible. With 
the proper oil installations, or systems, this fuel is readily burned. 
It must be heated to reduce its viscosity. Topped Mexican oils of 
14 to 16 degrees gravity vaporize at approximately 175 degrees 
Fahrenheit and should be heated to about 170 degrees Fahrenheit. 
The lower or bottom oils of 11 to 12 degrees gravity vaporize at 
from 205 to 210 degrees and should be heated to within five (5) 
degrees of the vaporizing point. 

California oil of from 14 to 16 degrees gravity Baume vaporizes 
at 230 degrees Fahrenheit and should be heated to 225 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

Texas oil which is approximately 21 degrees gravity vaporizes 
at 142 degrees Fahrenheit and should be heated to 5 degrees less 
than the vaporizing point. 

Oklahoma oil vaporizes at approximately 154 degrees Fahren- 
heit and should be heated to 149 degrees Fahrenheit. 

We are often asked: "What is the vaporizing point of oil of 
from 21 to 23 degrees gravity?" This question cannot be an- 
swered without asking the question: "From what field is this 
oil taken?" because sometimes you get a mixed oil that is a 21 
degree gravity oil. If mixed oil it would be 50 per cent. Mexican 
oil and 50 per cent. Pennsylvania oil, which is about 36 degrees 
gravity. This will make 21 degrees gravity Baume oil. Some- 
times 23 degree gravity oil is made by mixing 40 per cent, of the 
Mexican oil and 60 per cent, of the Pennsylvania oil. These oils 
vaporize at approximately 140 degrees Fahrenheit. 



220 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




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■1 








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■ 1 i 


1 




i 1 1 






P 


li! 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 221 

There are a great number of oil systems, especially in manu- 
facturing plants along the Atlantic Coast, which will have to be 
discarded before Mexican oil can be used because a circulating 
system, such as is shown (See Fig. 188) , is absolutely essential. The 
practice of having one or two large mains and laterals leading 
from the mains to the furnaces, and having almost every lateral 
a "dead end" can never be successful when burning Mexican oils. 
Often heavy oil is condemned because manufacturers have tried 
it in their works and have, owing to improperly laid oil systems, 
failed. The failure is not the fault of the gravity of the oil, but is 
the fault of an imperfect oil system. Again, too, it is very essen- 
tial to thoroughly atomize the heavy oil. Without having the 
heavy oil thoroughly atomized, it is impossible to get results, both 
as to output and economy in fuel. A few years ago we were burn- 
ing oil of approximately 36 degrees gravity Baume which could 
be shoveled into a furnace with a small shovel, intermittently, and 
would heat up the furnace. You could even take two pieces of pipe 
and blow the oil with a quantity of low pressure air into the fur- 
nace and get fair results, or results equal to the conception of the 
operator, but this is impossible with heavy oil. Furthermore in 
the burning of the heavier Mexican oil (which has an asphaltum 
base) it is very necessary to use low pressure on the oil lines. It 
should not exceed 12 pounds, for to get an accurate control on the 
flow of oil to the burner the opening in the oil-regulating cock 
should be as large as possible. If 40 or 60 pounds oil pressure is 
carried upon the oil system it is difficult to keep the oil pipes 
tight, and again, too, you cannot get as accurate regulation of the 
flow of oil to the burner with a pressure of 40 to 60 pounds as 
with a pressure of 10 or 12 pounds. 

Fig. 188 represents a modern forge shop for large and small drop 
forgings. Of course the furnace arrangements and forging 
machines are located in different positions, as necessity requires, 
but all the furnaces are of modern construction and are so ar- 
ranged that they can be lifted up by the crane and placed in the 
masons' room for repairs. The dividing walls separating the 
rooms are approximately twelve (12) feet in height, but not too 
high for the convenient operation of the cranes. 

The first room of the works is the stock yard. This is usually 
placed outside of the building, and may be covered if desired. The 
next (Room 2) is the masons' room, where all the various types 



222 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



and sizes of furnaces are repaired or kept in repair by the mason, 
so that when the lining or arch of a furnace is almost ready to 
drop, the night shift carries that furnace into the masons' room 
and puts a newly re-lined furnace in place of the one having had 
the lining burned out, and then starts the burner so that the fur- 
nace is hot the following morning. By this method the output 
from the works remains at maximum, and machines which cost 
many thousands of dollars are not idle. Consequently there is no 



CAf?f>Y/N6 IMH rofi cf>A/ves 




Fig. 189. Heat-treating furnace. 

capital lying idle and the workmen are constantly employed. Room 
3 is the large forging department, with its forge machines or 
piercing machines. Room 4 is a small drop forge plant in which 
board drops or steam drop hammers are used. These furnaces 
are of modern construction, usually twin-type. The object of this 
is obvious, for as a charge is put into one section of the furnace 
and heated, stock is being drawn and forged from the other. Room 
5 is the heat-treating department, and the next (Room 6) is the 
store room for finished forgings. Room 7 is the boiler room. In 



MODERN FOEGE SHOP PRACTICE 223 

other words, the metal is charged at one end of the plant and 
reaches the store room as finished forgings, after being carefully 
heat-treated and inspected. In the construction of a forge shop, 
the first thing to do is to find the proper size of furnaces required 
for the forgings. Never build a building until you know the size 
of the furnaces required for maximum output. 

You will notice that there is a circulating oil system extending 
to all the furnaces, and the main oil pipe also passes into the boiler 
room (No. 7) in order to protect the power plant against a shut- 
down in case there should be a coal strike or coal shortage, or a 
car shortage. It is poor business and poor shop practice to wait 
for the coal strike to come before procuring the necessary oil-burn- 
ing equipment for the boilers. This should always be on hand if 
oil is used in any other portion of the works. 

A heat-treating furnace, of course, should be of modern con- 
struction. We usually recommend a semi-muffle type, as shown 
in Fig. 190, having graduated heat ports, the heat being made in the 
lower chamber and delivered to the charging chamber of the fur- 
nace through these graduated heat ports. It is distributed in such 
a way as to insure an even distribution of heat through the entire 
length and width of the furnace. We have found this can only be 
done by graduated heat ports because the velocity of the atomized 
fuel from the burner would otherwise make the opposite end of the 
furnace two or three hundred degrees hotter if all the heat ports 
were made of the same proportions. The sulphur contents in the 
Mexican oil often run as high as 3.85 per cent. It therefore 
necessitates the use of a canopy so that all the obnoxious gases will 
be removed from the furnace or forge shop and not annoy the 
workmen nor cause them to become dissatisfied. 

As before stated, the metallurgist is an indispensable man about 
the forge plant, for upon him devolves the responsibility of making 
the forgings of the tensile strength demanded by the users. He 
is a competitor of the iron and steel foundry, for he makes the 
forged product of the highest stability and at the same time pre- 
vents any waste of metal by not having the drop forgings larger 
than is absolutely necessary. Of course the tensile strength of 
the metal is increased by heat-treating, and it is this man who 
states the temperatures to the furnace operator which govern him 
in the operation of the furnace, and he in turn maintains the 
temperature s|)ecified by the metallurgist. 



224 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



The die maker is another invakiable man and is a co-worker 
with the metallurgist. He is the man responsible for the accuracy 
of the shape and size of the drop forgings. He should be a man 
of excellent judgment and prevent waste of metal. 

The plant superintendent is the man who demands a maximum 
output by developing team work in all the departments, and en- 
deavors to have an important watchword such as: "WE LEAD 
ALL SHOPS IN EFFICIENCY, ECONOMY, MAXIMUM OUT- 
PUT OF SUPERIOR QUALITY." The successful superintendent 




Fig. 190. Ingot heating furnace. 



is the man who leads and never follows, a "progressive" in the true 
sense of that word, — not a dreamer — obtaining his knowledge and 
making improvements by best known modern practices. He should 
be like Columbus, who did not follow the ideas and ideals of other 
mariners of his day, but had a greater vision; otherwise America 
never would have been discovered. The superintendent who 
copies the furnace construction and methods of other comrsnies 
cannot lead ; he must necessarily follow. The man who imitates 
is never a very dependable official. He lacks the ability of an ex- 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 225 

ecutive. Often we find men who try to copy the methods of others. 
The class of work, the construction of the furnaces, and the 
method of operating studied in another plant might be absolutely 
impractical in his plant, and the result is that the imitation ends in 
a miserable failure. It is all very well to investigate methods, but 
it is not always wise to copy them. There are so many things that 
enter into their practical use that one must be very guarded in 
striving to emulate the exact practice of another works. 

I am well aware that oil, in marine service, is attractive be- 
cause of the saving effected in labor, there being no discharging 
of ashes, as well as the time saved in charging the oil fuel on the 
vessel as against the time required for the loading of coal, and also 
the advantage of being able to increase the speed of the vessel, the 
cleanliness, and improved sanitary conditions as well as the fact 
that this fuel elevates the mind of the fireman as his duty does 
not require mere brawn but brains for the scientific burning of 
oil, and gives him the feeling that though he is housed up in a 
hot boiler room (much cooler because of the use of oil as fuel) 
he is a man "for a' that." In tug boat service oil is even more 
attractive as a fuel than it is for ocean-going vessels. In numerous 
tests it has been found that two oil-fired tug boats will take the 
place of three tugs of the same size and power, and having all 
other conditions the same as when using coal as fuel. Yet we 
must consider the use and the many advantages of this fuel for 
the manufacturers whose products must furnish at least a part of 
the cargo for these vessels or else these vessels will be operated 
at a loss. 

For example, Fig. 190 shows a vertical mid-section view of an 
ingot-heating furnace operated with liquid fuel. The large ingot 
is brought to a forging heat in five (5) hours' time. The tem.pera- 
ture in any portion of this furnace will not (while taking a 12- 
foot heat) vary more than 20 degrees Fahrenheit. The weight 
of that portion of the ingot that is heated is thirty-six (36) tons. 
You will note that there is a combustion chamber which is used 
to consume the atomized fuel before reaching the furnace proper, 
and it is so located as to insure a reverberation of the heat around 
the ingot. This gives an even distribution of heat, which is absorbed 
uniformly by the ingot, and the result is that the ingot does not 
require turning. One heater can operate six of such furnaces, 
and only eighty-two (82) gallons of oil are required to represent 



226 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



a ton of coal, as before mentioned. Now, compare this with a 
coal-fired ingot-heating furnace, heating the same size ingot to 
the same temperature. It will require thirty (30) hours, instead 



lii 



of five (5) hours to heat it, and owing to the variation of the tem- 
perature in the furnace (it is usually from 250 to 300 degrees 
hotter at the top of the furnace just past the bridge wall, than at 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 227 

the base of the furnace) the ingot must be constantly turned in 
different positions so that the upper portion of the ingot will not 
become overheated. It requires at least six (6) men to turn and 
rebrick around the ingot. There is not a metallurgist in the world 
who will not agree with me in the statement that any furnace in 
which can be secured an even distribution of heat is attractive, 
as it means even absorption of heat. I am very sure that all forge- 
men, also, will agree with me that forgings should be heated as 
evenly as possible in order to reduce to the minimum all strains 
caused by uneven temperatures while heating. The men in marine 
service will get a new vision also, and that is, — in the forging 
industry — oil is even more attractive than in marine boiler equip- 
ment on ocean-going vessels because a great deal more labor can 
be saved in a forge shop than in marine service, to say nothing of 
the increased output and superior quality of the product from the 
forge shop. In times of peace oil should be used only upon as few 
naval boats as possible. It should be used on some vessels, how- 
ever, owing to the fact that men should be trained in the art of 
operating oil burners. It would be well to have the boilers of the 
vessels interchangeable so that they can readily be changed from 
coal to oil, and from oil back to coal, for in a case of war oil should 
be used if possible on naval vessels. I know that there are a large 
number of merchant vessels now being equipped with oil in order 
to save labor and avoid strikes. I believe that will only be used 
temporarily, but I am equally confident that the nation which con- 
serves its oil and gives its manufacturers all the oil they require, 
will be the manufacturing nation of the future. 

Continuous furnaces (Fig. 191), have either an inclined or de- 
clined hearth and are the most economical furnaces in use because 
with them you retain as much of the waste heat as is possible. 
Sometimes waste heat is carried to a boiler, while in other types of 
furnaces the waste heat is vented without the use of the stack. The 
latter form is preferable. 

In drop forge practice the twin-type furnace as shown in Fig. 192 
is always preferable to a furnace having only a single charging 
opening owing to the fact that you will get a more even heat on 
blanks or small billets charged, because often in actual practice 
with a single type furnace there is but a space of about the width 
of an ingot between the last blank charged and the one about to 
be drawn from the furnace. This practice produces an uneven 



228 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



229 




230 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

temperature on the next blank that is to be drawn because the cold 
blank absorbs the heat more rapidly than the one that is almost 
the temperature required for forging, and this results in the un- 
even heating of the forging next to be drawn from the furnace. 
We have never known of any firm which, having used the twin- 
type furnace, has returned to the single opening type of furnace. 
Blanks are charged into one of the openings of the twin-type fur- 
nace and are brought to heat while the blanks of the other section 
pf the twin-type furnace are being drawn and forged. This type 
of furnace occupies more room, but the output is greater and more 
even heats are obtained, which of course pleases the forgeman. 

In the construction of furnaces always use the best non-expand- 
ing fire brick procurable that will withstand the temperature your 
work requires, remembering that it costs just as much to build or 
reline a furnace using poor brick as good brick, and some fire 
brick is not worth putting in at all. 

Modern heat deflectors should be provided with which to de- 
flect the heat from the furnace operator. This should be done in 
order to prevent the workman from being overheated and to en- 
able the operator to obtain the maximum output with minimum 
fatigue. 

Every furnace should be of the proportions required for the 
maximum output. It should be modern in every detail and should 
be so constructed that the upkeep of the furnaces will be reduced 
to the minimum. Construction along scientific lines is absolutely 
essential in order to get the maximum output, maintain the re- 
quired temperature and an even distribution of heat. This is 
essential and must always be considered by the engineer designing 
the furnaces. A modern furnace is shown in Fig. 193. 

Some firms desire to place their furnaces on concrete foundations 
such as are shown in Fig. 194. The furnace is made of channel 
iron and can be removed to the mason's room by the night force 
when repairs on the lining are necessary. 

The furnace shown in Fig. 196 was originally fired with coal but 
it has been changed to oil-fired. The waste heat from this furnace 
passes up through the elements of the boiler and then out through 
the stack. 

In Fig. 198 we have a furnace serving two bolt headers. (Note 
the absence of flame from the charging openings.) A furnace of 
this type is often placed between a bolt header and a rivet making 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



231 



h-^ 



^=¥^^. 






a 






"^'ti4@: 



M T 







Fig. 194. Portable forge furnace. 



232 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



233 




234 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Ot»-L»CTIt.n AlK ekA&T 




Fig. 197. Forge in which oil is used exclusively as fuel. 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



235 



machine. In either case, it will serve both machines to the limit of 
the physical endurance of the operators. If desired for rivet heat- 
ing in larger quantities, various sizes can be heated at one time. 

A large coal-fired forging furnace is changed to oil fuel by simply 
building a combustion chamber of proper form and proportions in 
the former fire-box and placing a burner at the end of this combus- 
tion chamber. With this slight change the operator has now an oil 
furnace wherein the fire is under perfect control and from which he 
obtains a maximum quantity of output of superior quality. When 
a furnace of this type (Fig. 199) is changed from coal to oil, the 
operator almost invariably wishes to operate the furnace just the 
same as when burning coal. That is, by having an abundance of 




Fig. 198. Furnace serving two bolt headers. 

flame (about 2 ft. high) passing out of the door opening. You 
might thus run an oil-fired furnace for days without getting a weld- 
ing heat, but when the oil is regulated so that only a greenish haze 
about 6 in. long passes out of the door, COo is effected and in a few 
moments in the interior of the furnace can be seen a glow which 
insures a welding heat, thereby giving not only the highest efficiency 
from the fuel but also the greatest output from the furnace. 

For dressing drills and other high speed steel tools it is convenient 
to have a furnace of the type shown in Fig. 200. This furnace is 
also valuable for a wide range of forging in smith shops, etc. Placed 



236 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



between two bolt heaters, a furnace of this type with charging 
opening on each side, will serve both machines to the limit of the 
men's ability to handle the blanks. A furnace with two charging 
openings will produce double the output of the same size furnace 
with only one opening, with increase in oil consumption of less than 
30 per cent. 

The man or firm who intends to continue in business and com- 
pete with modern methods must of necessity use liquid fuel for 
the manufacture of drop forgings as with this can be produced the 




Fig. 199. Forging furnace changed from coal to oil-fired. 

maximum quantity of output of superior quality in minimum time. 
Anyone who has used oil as fuel quickly notices the softness of the 
heat. That is, oil produces a penetrating heat so that the metal is 
thoroughly heated throughout its entirety, while that heated with 
coal, coke or gas is subjected to an abrasive heat so that the out- 
side of the blank or forging is heated much hotter than the center. 
Because of the penetrating heat produced by liquid fuel, oil heated 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



237 



blanks and forgings are forged quicker, with less power, and there 
is also a saving on the dies. Furnaces (Fig. 201) for this purpose 
should be of such design that the heat will be evenly distributed 
throughout the charging zone and a proper size combustion chamber 
used to reduce the oxidization of the metal to the minimum. 

A 12-in. billet charged into the furnace shown in Fig. 202, after 




J 






Fig. 200. Furnace for heating high speed steel, etc. A — Oil 
burner. B — Oil regulating cock. C — Air pipe. D — Oil 
pipe. E — Deflection blast pipe. F. — Auxiliary blast. 



it has been shut down over night can be brought to a forging heat 
in 45 minutes. A 10-in. square ingot or billet can then be brought 
to a forging heat in 32 minutes. This furnace is used for annealing, 
tempering, heating, forging and welding large billets, shafts, etc. 
As there are two charging openings opposite one another, heats can 
be taken on any portion of long shafts or billets. In many plants 



238. 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



this furnace is operated with compressed air as long as that is 
available. When the air is needed for pneumatic tools, etc., by sim- 
ply opening a by-pass valve, steam at boiler pressure is used to 
atomize the fuel. Either steam or volume air (at from 3 to 5 oz, 
pressure) is used through the deflection blast in front of the charg- 
ing opening to deflect the heat from the operator and retain it in 
the furnace. 

In Fig. 203 v^e have an 8 ft. x 24 ft. furnace used for years in 




Fig. 201. Small drop forging furnace. 



rolling mills or large blacksmith shops, where they have to use all 
kinds of scrap iron which must be brought up to a welding heat 
before passing through the rolls or forged under the steam hammer. 
Only one burner is used, but this, giving a fan-shaped flame and 
used in conjunction with a combustion chamber of proper size, 
causes an even distribution of heat throughout the entire length and 
width of the furnace. The waste gases, passing up through a 350 
H. P. vertical water-tube boiler, are utilized for the generation of 
steam. 



MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



239 




240 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




MODERN FORGE SHOP PRACTICE 



241 



J ^ 




242 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



In many plants there is great need for a furnace designed for 
dressing and tempering high speed tools (60 carbon upwards), such 
as lathe, planer, shaper, slotters, chisels, flats, capes, etc. (Fig. 
205.) 

Instead of the blacksmith heating but one chisel at a time as is 
the case while using a coal forge, with this furnace seven chisels 





Fig. 205. Small tool dressing furnace. 



can be heated at once without injury to the metal. The heat being 
held at the required temperature constantly, a much superior tool is 
produced than could possibly be made by the use of coal or coke. 
A forging heat can be obtained eight minutes after starting the 
cold furnace and it is not necessary to speak of the output as that is 
up to the endurance of the man operating the furnace. There is no 
waste of fuel while the furnace is not in use. 



Chapter XV 

BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE 
EQUIPMENT 




Fig. 208. Plate heating furnace, charging space 18 ft. x 30 ft. 



Ordinarily only one burner should be installed in the average 
plate heating furnace if you want a good even heat, but this should 
be a burner giving a flat fan-shaped flame, which in conjunction 
with a combustion chamber of adequate proportions, distributes 
a blanket of flame and heat evenly throughout the entire length 
and width of the furnace. Sometimes, however, it is advantageous 
to have a furnace in which plates of various lengths can be heated. 
That shown in Fig. 209 has two bag-walls and for short heats only 

243 



244 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



the first burner is operated. For longer heats the first bag wall is 
removed and two burners used. For full length heats both bag- 
walls are removed and all three burners operated. 

In the furnace shown in Fig. 213, the bars are charged in at 
one end of the furnace and drawn out at the other end. For small 
rivets, some people prefer to cut the bars into lengths of eight or 
nine feet. The length of furnaces of this type will vary according 
to the sizes of the rivets to be made and the length of the bars to 
be heated as blanks for the rivets. 

For a wide range of small work in a small shop, the little fur- 
nace shown in Fig. 214 is ideal. For instance, in many plants one 







Fig. 209. Long plate heating furnace with two bag walls. 



of these little furnaces is used for forging, rivet heating, annealing, 
hardening dies, dressing high speed steel tools, and by placing a 
muffle in the charging space it is used as a muffle annealing and 
tempering furnace. It heats rivets uniformly and on 21/2 gallons of 
oil per hour is equal to four coal forges, the maximum capacity 
being eight thousand %-in. x 3-in. rivets per day (ten hours). 
Either compressed air or dry steam can be used to atomize the 
fuel. The burners on about 60% of these furnaces are operated 
with steam. 

While a small furnace (Fig. 214) is ideal for heating small rivets, 
larger rivets should be heated in a larger furnace, preferably of 
the twin charging type (Fig. 215). Some rivets can in this type 
of furnace be shoveled in through one of the openings and while 



BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 245 

that batch of rivets is being heated, others (which had been previ- 
ously charged) are being withdrawn from the other opening. In 
using a bull riveter it is necessary to heat the rivets quickly and at 
the same time reduce the scale as much as possible. It is therefore 
essential to have a combustion chamber on the furnace so as to 
reduce the oxidization of the metal to the minimum. 




JIaJL 



P-^ 



ILigJl 



W^ 



jL&n 



JLaJL 



[IaJ 



13l 



rszEzrsur 



lr«Ti 



A52_ 



iHm 



Fig. 210. Plate heating furnace, charging space 8 ft. x 9 ft. 



Fig. 216. A self-contained portable outfit with 20 gallon oil tank, 
which can readily be moved around from place to place and which 
is used for heating rivets as well as for forging, tool dressing, etc. 
Very convenient for small work in shops not equipped with the regu- 
lar oil system as well as for work where portable outfit is necessary. 
Compressed air at pneumatic tool pressure is used to operate this 
outfit. That is, the full pressure is used through the burner to 
atomize the fuel and distribute the heat, and through the deflection 
blast in front of the charging opening to deflect the heat from the 
operator and to retain it in the furnace, but the air used on the tank 



246 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



^ 5 



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BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 247 

to force the oil to the burner is reduced from pneumatic tool pres- 
sure to 12 lbs. as it passes through a pressure reducing valve. This 
device is most essential to prevent excessive pressure on the oil tank 
and safeguard human life. 




/ • • • • ■ V 

<>_»llr»_J.f..l ..j 



Fig 212. Flange furnace, twin door type, charging space 14 ft. wide by 
20 ft. long. 



Angle heating furnaces are needed in boiler works, shipyards, etc. 
That shown (Figs. 217, 218, 219 and 220) is so constructed that you 
only operate as many burners as are actually required. In this 



248 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 249 

particular furnace heats varying in length from six to sixty-seven 
feet can be taken, but of course the furnace could have been con- 
structed for taking heats one hundred feet long equally as well if de- 
sired. No stack is used upon this type of furnace. 

Until quite recently wood was used for firing up boilers in 
boiler shops for testing purposes, or in locomotive works for rais- 




Fig. 214. Small forging- furnace. 



ing steam to set pops when the locomotive is completed. By us- 
ing oil instead of wood for this purpose there is 50 per cent, saving 
in time and cost. With an apparatus such as shown in operation 
in Fig. 221 the operator has the fire under perfect control, and one 
man can look after 5 or 6 furnaces at a time. For the largest 
Mogul engine we use either one furnace, such as shown in Fig. 222 
which gives a fan-shaped incandescent flame 18 inches to 10 feet 



250 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 251 

in length at a point 6 feet from the furnace, the flame being 4 feet 
wade, or two of the smaller portable furnaces shown in Fig. 223, 
which give a round incandescent flame 1 foot long, 3 inches in dia- 
meter to 6 feet long and about 10 inches in diameter. For a 
smaller size locomotive ordinarily one of the furnaces shown in 
Fig. 223 is used. 

These furnaces are also used for a multitude of other purposes 




Fig. 216. 



Portable, self-contained outfit for 
rivet heating, etc. 



such as setting up corners of fire-box sheets to mud-rings; flang- 
ing, laying on patches, heating crown sheets, heating and welding 
band rings; bending pipe up to 16-inch diameter without sand 
filling; (straight pipe is laid on bending table with a shaper ar- 
ranged to suit curve; one end of pipe is clamped, and pipe bent 



252 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 253 




254 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



after heat is applied to outside of bend, thus stretching metal on 
the outside, without buckling inside of bend) ; straightening bent 
frames after a wreck, etc., etc. 

Referring to Fig. 223 you will note that compressed air (pneu- 
matic tool pressure) is used to operate this equipment. The full 
pressure is used through the burner to atomize the fuel and dis- 
tribute the heat, but the air used to force the fuel from the tank 




Fig. 219. End view of angle heating 
furnace, showing the location of 
the sixth burner. 






id CHANMHIMK 




Fig. 220. Door end view of angle heating 
furnace. 



to burner passes through a reducing valve which reduces it from 
pneumatic tool pressure to 10 pounds on the tank. To safeguard 
human life this pressure reducer is most essential. 

The welding of the rudder of the "Brutus" in 1905 was considered 
a remarkable achievement at that time, for it was the first time in 
the history of any navy yard or private ship yard that a weld had 



BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 255 

been successfully made under these conditions, using oil as fuel. 
The feat was accomplished with the author's equipment. It is pos- 
sible with oil as fuel to make a better weld than can be made with 
any other fuel, for the metal is made more homogeneous. 



^' 




Fig. 221. Portable furnace, rest- 
ing in fire door opening, firing 
up a locomotive boiler. 





Fig. 222. Portable furnace 
shown in operation in Fig. 221. 



Fig. 223. Smaller portable furnace 
with hose and tank on truck. 



There are three ways of welding locomotive frames. Thermit 
and oxy-acetylene are efficient but very costly, while with oil in 
about 40 minutes with a few gallons of oil a perfect weld is made. 



256 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




^T3 



^^ 



Or 



BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 257 



===„-^ s^Si 



1. A— TIic insert or 
Dutchman. 




2. Furnace in opera- 
tion. 




Note the constancy 
of heat and perfect 
combustion. 




4. A— The perfect 
weld. 



Fig. 225. The welding of a locomotive fr::Lme with a small portable 
furnace. 




Fig. 226. The little giant which did the trick shown in Fig. 225. 



258 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



Of course the expense entailed for labor in making the weld is 
the same in either case. Complete story of perfect weld with oil 
is shown in Figs. 225 and 226. 

The oil furnace shown in Fig. 226 is operated with a small quan- 




Fig. 227. 



Portable furnace brazing the exhaust pipe of an automobile 
engine. 



tity of compressed air, and may be used for various other pur- 
poses such as flanging, laying on patches and laps, heating crown 
sheets, firing up and testing boilers in boiler shops; brazing and 
filling castings, ladle heating, melting or keeping metals hot in 
foundries; brazing, annealing and heating of all kinds in copper 



BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 259 

shops; removing propeller wheels, straightening and bending on 
board vessel rudder frames, stern posts, keel, etc., pipe bending, 
etc.; melting metals in small quantities for laboratory tests, etc., 
heating rails for bending, etc. 

Fig. 227. This furnace is mounted on a 5 ft. standard so that 
the apparatus can be adjusted to any height or angle needed for all 
kinds of heating purposes where it is desired to heat a small portion 
of the metal. The furnace may be removed from the stand and used 




Fig. 228. A hand torch or very small portable furnace. 



as a blow pipe for straightening or setting up work difficult of 
access. The tiny furnace is lined with refractory material. This 
becomes heated lily-white and insures a constant steady flame even 
when the oil supply is cut very low. With apparatus having a 
metal combustion chamber not lined with refractory material there 
is always more or less difficulty with the fire not burning steadily. 
The refractory material also aids combustion and prevents oil being 
thrown out with the flame. 

Hand Torches (Fig. 228), made in various sizes, are very eco- 
nomical and efficient for all classes of light heating purposes, such 



260 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Fig. 229. Furnace for pipe bending, brazing, etc. 




Fig. 230. Flue welding furnace. 



BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 261 

as skin-drying moulds, lighting cupolas, heating tires, light brazing, 
burning paint off steel cars, etc. 

With the furnace shown in Fig. 229 a five-inch copper pipe can 
be brazed in four minutes, starting with a cold furnace. This fur- 
nace is designed for pipe bending and brazing, but it is not advisable 
to use it for welding. 

Fig. 230. A modern flue welding furnace, the capacity of which 
is 60 welds of safe ends on 2-in. or 2i4-in. locomotive boiler tubes 
per hour, while with a coal forge 16 flues per hour is considered 




Fig. 231. Pipe welding furnace. 



good practice. With either fuel the blacksmith requires two helpers, 
the difference being that with coal a blacksmith has to work much 
harder than his two helpers do, for he must keep turning the flue 
or he will burn a hole in it, and he must constantly be putting on 
borax and sand or other welding compounds, whereas in this mod- 
ern oil furnace his helpers can charge and remove the flues, no 
welding compounds being necessary. Three flues (instead of only 
one) are charged at a time. Oil welded flues are not water-tested 
as the welds are all perfect, there being no corrosion or oxidation 
of the metal. No time lost while waiting to renew or coke the fire. 



262 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




BOILER MANUFACTURERS' FURNACE EQUIPMENT 263 

58 gallons of oil are equivalent to a ton of good bituminous coal in 
this class of service. When a smith, who all his life has been using 
coal for this class of v^ork, discovers these facts, he concludes that 
oil is the marvel of the 20th century. A shop still using coal for 
this class of work is hopelessly behind the times and cannot expect 
to compete with its more modern neighbors. Flue welding fur- 
naces are usually supplied with extra slide plates so that for weld- 
ing larger size flues, the plates with the small openings can be re- 
moved, the plates for larger size flues put on and the openings in 
the brickwork cut to the required size. In handling 6-in. super- 
heater flues ordinarily only two flues are welded at a time. 

The furnace shown in Fig. 231 is operated with one burner and 
used for pipe welding, such as welding a flange on a 20-inch pipe, 
for van-stoning, etc. 

The ends of the furnace shown in Fig. 232 can be removed so 
that a pipe of any length may be heated. This furnace is used also 
for annealing large pipe and for bending (after the pipes have been 
filled with sand) . 



Chapter XVI 
COPPER INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

A copper refining furnace must be so equipped that the opera- 
tor has the fire under perfect control at all times. That is, at 
times a reducing flame is necessary, while at other times an oxi- 
dizing flame is required. Only one burner should be used in a 
120-ton furnace, as shown in accompanying cut, but this must 
spread a blanket of flame over the entire surface of the bath or 
charging space, which in this case is 14 feet wide by 26 feet long. 
I am aware that attempts have been made to use a large number 
of burners, installed along the sides of the furnace, with operating 
valves for each burner, but the operation of the furnace under 
these conditions was so complicated the operator could not ac- 
curately regulate the flame, and if, during the refining process, 
the metal is oxidized, it becomes porous and when rolled into cop- 
per wire the porousness ruins the conductivity of the wire. With 
the one burner a small quantity of superheated steam or com- 
pressed air is used to atomize the fuel and distribute the heat in 
the furnace, but by far the greater portion of the air necessary 
for combustion is admitted through the volume air nozzle under 
the burner. 

At the end of the furnace you will note the door used during 
the refining process for poling the charge (agitating the molten 
metal with a long wooden pole) . In this door is a peep-hole through 
which the burner can be plainly seen at the opposite end of the 
furnace and all the operating valves are so placed that the opera- 
tor, while viewing the burner, can quickly and accurately adjust 
the air and oil supply according to the requirements for the prop- 
er treatment of the metal. 

Copper electrodes are charged into the refining furnace (Fig. 
236) 90% pure and have to leave it at 99.60% or practically pure 
copper. After the metal has become molten, it is necessary to 
greenpole the charge until the state of purity required is obtained. 
During this time it is necessary to use an oxidizing flame, as an 
excess of oxygen is required in the furnace during this process ; but 

264 



COPPER INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



265 




266 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



after having obtained 
the proper refinement, 
it is necessary to at 
once change the flame 
of the burner from an 
oxidizing to a neutral 
flame, as otherwise it 
would oxidize the 
charge. After reach- 
ing the required state 
of refinement, if you 
were to run an oxidiz- 
ing flame for twenty 
minutes in this fur- 
nace, the result would 
be that when the cop- 
per taken from this 
furnace is drawn into 
wire, it would be full 
of miniature openings 
which would ruin its 
conductivity for elec- 
trical purposes. The 
capacity of this fur- 
nace is 250 tons of 
metal. This furnace is 
equipped with only one 
burner and only one 
burner should be used, 
because you cannot ob- 
tain the desired re- 
sults with more than 
one burner in this type 
of furnace. It is, how- 
ever, an engineering 
feat to design a com- 
bustion chamber of 
adequate proportions 
to give the desired 
results. 




COPPER INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



267 






268 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

The continuous furnace used for copper matting (Fig. 237) has 
a bath nineteen feet wide, one hundred thirty-eight feet long. Only 
one burner is required, but this must be of adequate capacity to 
throw a flame which will cover the entire bath. Steam or com- 
pressed air is used through the burner for atomizing purposes and 
also volume air at three-ounce pressure is used through the volume 
air nozzle under the burner to aid the combustion of the atomized 
fuel. The copper is tapped out through the landers and the slag is 
hoed out of the slag door and hauled to the dump by a locomotive. 



Chapter XVII 
ENAMELING EQUIPMENT 

There are two (2) forms of enameling furnaces, but these are 
of various sizes and types. In some classes of work it is absolutely 
essential to use the muffle type, such as shown in Fig. 240. 

The direct-fired type of furnace is shown in Fig. 241 and 242. 
This furnace is heated to the required temperature, the burner 
shut off, the charging door raised and the charge placed in the fur- 




Asfr/Mr ar SS 



Fig. 240. Muffle furnace for baking enamel, annealing, etc. 



nace for from six to eight minutes, or until the enamel is baked on 
to the ware, after which the charge is withdrawn and the burner 
again operated to bring the furnace up to the required heat for the 
second charge. As soon as a charge is baked, it is removed from the 
car or rack, and the rack refilled. Thus the furnace is operated 
continuously all the day. 

Guessing at the temperature of an enameling oven is simply a 
waste of time, fuel and material. If a recording pyrometer is a 
necessity on a heat-treatment furnace, certainly it is equally as 
essential to use a recording heat gauge on these ovens so that the 
actual temperature may be a matter of daily record. 

269 



270 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




ENAMELING EQUIPMENT 



271 




Chapter XVIII 

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

Chemical furnaces are so varied that each form of furnace re- 
quires a special design. In the majority of cases we use a tan- 
gential flame in order to get even distribution of heat under the 
kettle. The cylindrical combustion chamber must be of propor- 




— '^4-t '"^' ' li'r ^ /r'A +"— ^^— lf-;fi- L 



^H^j^ 



m 




-^4. 




Fig. 245. Chemical furnace equipment. 
272 



CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



273 



>/-y-v«', ^^' X ?• ^ V ^ 




274 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

k 



275 



^ ^■y|^:s-l4-i... |vc:l.-^OvvlW ^ 










*■;-??*•„ r^ Ir 'i ( ^^^ ^y,^ jy,^ ^ri-/,/ 



ttw^^^^m 




276 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Fig. 249. Rosin still. View showing location of burner. 



CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



277 




278 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



279 




280 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




CAMefr /^or smovv/v 



CHEMICAL INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

f"/iouAa ye NT- 



281 




Fig. 254. Oil heating furnace, the hot oil being used to heat jacketed stills contain- 
ing very inflammable chemicals. 



282 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

tionate size, and the top of this cylindrical combustion chamber 
must also be a certain distance from the bottom of the kettle. These 
dimensions vary in proportion to the temperature required in the 
kettle and the quantity of chemicals charged. The cuts following 
show several different types. 

Sometimes it is necessary in the manufacture of chemicals of 
a very inflammable nature to heat the stills with oil to a tempera- 
ture of say 650 degrees Fahrenheit. The heating furnace is or- 
dinarily placed outside of the building, and the stills are placed 
in the chemical room; the oil being distributed around the stills 
maintains the required temperature in the still for the length of 
time desired. This form of furnace is shown in Fig. 254. 



Chapter XIX 
CERAMIC EQUIPMENT 

Oil is the most modern fuel for brick kilns, baking terra-cotta, 
pottery, etc. 

Owing to the fact that the temperatures can be controlled so ac- 
curately; much more perfectly than with any other fuel. Before 




Fig. 257. Ordinary down-draft bee-hive kiln, requiring a burner for each eye. 

283 



284 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



high temperatures can be attained and maintained it is necessary 
to run a very light fire until all 
the moisture (what is technically 
termed 'water-smoke") has been 
removed. A small flame not ex- 
ceeding 8 inches in 
length can be main- 
tained for many 
hours until the de- 
sired results have 
been attained, after 
which the burner 
may be operated at 
its maximum capac- 
ity and the kiln 
brought to tempera- 
ture as quickly as 
prudence will allow. 
Therefore a very 
superior product is 
produced by the use Fig. 258. Bee-hive kiln changed from coal to oil- 
nf nil ntj fiipl ^^^^ ^^ covering the grates with a fire-brick 

01 on as luei. checkerwork and bricking up the firing door. 




k^ 


t 


n 
1 


i 


-- 


"iV.V.- 


' ...... ., ,. "' 1 




Fig. 259. An ordinary brick kiln, capacity 500,000 brick. Having 
forty eyes, it requires forty burners. 



CERAMIC EQUIPMENT 



285 





SECTIOn TMROUOH 
FIRE BOX. EGHJIPTMENT WHICH I RECOMMEMD 




BMER EMO Mievl 



SECTION TMROOG-H FIRE nouTM 

EaUlPTMENT OF POTTERY K\ UN 



Fig. 260. Two ways of equipping a pottery kiln, the type of construction shown in the 
upper views being the most modern. 



Chapter XX 
LIME INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

Oil is particularly adapted for lime kilns owing to the fact 
that the product is more evenly heated, as the required tempera- 
ture can be attained and maintained within a few degrees varia- 
tion. Should there be any sulphur in the oil, with the proper method 
of equipment, this will not in any way affect the lime. It is very 
essential that the operating valves be placed some distance from 
the burner opening, for sometimes the rock will not follow the dis- 
charge from the kiln, which results in its leaving a large opening in 
the base of the kiln and in fifteen or twenty minutes this column of 
rock falls to the base of the kiln, causing a blast of flame to be ex- 
pelled from the burner opening which is liable to catch any one 
standing near the front of the kiln. The operating valves should 
be so placed that no harm can possibly befall the operator. 

The most modern practice is to use a rotary kiln in which the 
air from the discharged lime is superheated and used in the kiln 
to aid combustion. In Fig. 263 the burner is so placed that the 
furnace is used for a combustion chamber, but it is better practice 
to build a combustion chamber on to the end wall as shown in 
Fig. 264. 

The vertical line kiln equipment is illustrated in Figs. 265 and 266. 



286 



LIME INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



287 




^ -^ 



2S8 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




LIME INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



289 




^l/C/(ST/tVS /v or SHOV^f* 



Fig;. 265. Vertical I'me kiln, requiring two burners, one on each side 
(Burners not shown.) 



290 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Fig. 266. Vertical lime kiln. (Combustion chamber 
shown, but not the burner.) 



Chapter XXI 

CEMENT INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

Oil, when it can compete with pulverized coal, is an excellent 
fuel for rotary cement kilns. We always recommend the use of 
secondary air ; that is, volume air, in order to obtain the maximum 
output from the kiln. Engineers always figure that every 20 feet 






CMOC/A'/y J'O/A/T (/A//0/^ 



/?ro/^/z£/i y/?Z.V£ 







□ \ 



^£-ffi/C£fi 



cur- oar v/f/.v£ 
>o/^£: //a^£ s"^^. 

Fig. 269. Burner piping and volume air nozzle under the burner. 

of stack is equal to 1/10 foot draft providing it is a clear day; 
but all days are not clear, and if you depend upon the stack to 
draw in the oxygen needed to give the required temperature on a 
rainy day the output is not as great as on a clear day. However 
with the aid of a volume air nozzle placed under the burner as 



291 



292 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

shown in Fig. 269 and volume air at 3 ounce pressure, you can get 
the maximum output from the kiln under all climatic conditions. 

Only one burner is used, and the operating valves of same may 
be placed in whatever position is most convenient for the operator. 

In Fig. Nos. 270 and 271 is shown the most modern way of 
equipping a cement kiln. It is always necessary to provide a com- 
bustion chamber of adequate proportions, and also to place the 
operating valves wherever most convenient to the operator. Same 
form of poke-hole and peep-hole is used as when burning other fuels. 



CEMENT INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



293 




294 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Chapter XXII 
DRYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 

Asphaltum roads seem to be the demand of the hour, and if 
properly laid with the asphaltum 98 per cent, pure are excellent. 
Figure 275 shows a plant in which oil is used as fuel, not only 
for the boiler furnishing the steam to operate the machinery, but 
also for the sand dryer and the asphalt mixer, these oil burners 
being operated by the steam from the boiler. It is also used for 
melting the asphaltum in the large kettles. 

Of course the product from these machines is doubled and often 
tripled by the use of oil as fuel instead of coal. 

There are numerous types of dryers for drying sand, etc. One 
form is shown in Fig. 278. It is necessary to have a combustion 
chamber of adequate proportions to consume the oil before reach- 
ing the dryer proper. If this is constructed in the former coal 
firebox, the dryer can readily be changed from coal to oil-fired or 
back again to coal at a minimum expense. 

Oil is particularly adapted for ore roasting, for it enables the 
operator to attain and maintain the temperature required at all 
times. It is especially valuable for desulphurizing ores. There are 
legions of different types of ore roasters. In the cylindrical oven 
shown in Fig. 282, the ore is dropped into the upper chamber and 
passes through several chambers before being discharged. The rab- 
blers revolve and keep the ore in a state of agitation, as well as 
conveying it from the upper chamber to the lowest one from which 
it is discharged. The various chambers each require a different 
temperature and therefore eight or ten burners are required, ac- 
cording to the number of chambers and the size of the roaster. 

In some types of ore roasters, it is necessary to have the flame 
from the burner directed downwardly upon the charge, which is 
then carried along by a conveyor, substantially as indicated in 
Fig. 283. 

For rotary dryers in either portable or stationary asphalt plants 
it is most essential that the burner be capable of atomizing any 
gravity of liquid fuel, for in some localities you can get fuel oil, 

295 



296 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




r 


5 


\\ 


- H K..^ 




i lU .J^"^ 


j^ 


ijy 


f^ 


^ 

? 


^^m3 


-<>^^ 


■i, 




.-^^^ 






- 









DRYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 



297 



other places heavy crude oil, while in other localities nothing but 
oil tar from a gas works may be obtainable. Burning liquid fuel 




Fig. 275. Portable asphalt mixer equipped with oil burner. 



in the vertical or other type of boiler used to operate a portable 
asphalt plant is a great convenience and it eliminates the smoke 
nuisance. 



298 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 





, r f 


^"^ 


ii# 


F^ 


J ■** 


% 


i'l 


iH 


^ 


=u 


}/^'/^'' 


V// 


^/////■4 


4 


^<>> 






DRYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 



299 




300 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




DRYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 



SOI 




302 



BURNING LIQUID- FUEL 




DRYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 



303 




304 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Dx^wYERS AND ORE ROASTERS 



305 










Chapter XXIII 
BREAD AND CRACKER OVEN EQUIPMENT 

Oil is an excellent fuel for bread ovens, and is applied in the 
same fire-box in which coal was formerly used. The cut given 
shows the manner of applying the burner. The grates are simply 
covered with fire-brick and an igniting chamber built in the door- 
way. Either steam or compressed air may be used for atomizing, 
or low pressure air may be used if the oil is of a light gravity. 
There should be one burner in each fire-box and the operating 
valves may be placed wherever most convenient for the operator. 
The installation is a very simple one and a very satisfactory one, 
for the baker can at all times regulate the fire as he wishes in order 
to bake the bread, etc. No smoke nor odor when the oil is properly 
handled. 

The reel cracker oven (Fig. 287) has two combustion chambers, 
each having graduated heat ports which insure an even distribution 
of heat throughout the oven. 

Oil is the ideal fuel for the ordinary kitchen ranges used in hotels, 
restaurants, etc. The manner of equipping a battery of French 
ranges is shown in Fig. 290. 



306 



BREAD AND CRACKER OVEN EQUIPMENT 



307 




308 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




BREAD AND CRACKER OVEN EQUIPMENT 309 




Fig. 287. Cracker baking oven of the reel type. 





-0 
It 




iET^ 


- 



Fig. 288. Peterson oven. 



310 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




BREAD AND CRACKER OVEN EQUIPMENT 311 



kq 3 



im 



m 






11 




Chapter XXIV. 
CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

This shows an oil-burner as applied to a cocoa bean roaster. 
Oil is especially adapted for this class of service owing to the fact 
that you have perfect control of the temperatures. 

The baking of a cocoa bean requires a quick, hot fire at first, — 
then a light fire, and, during the last of the process, the fire is shut 
off entirely, the heat radiating from the fire brick being sufficient 
to finish the baking and put in the flavor. This manner of baking 
gives the bean a much better flavor than when coke is used as fuel, 
for coke produces a slow fire at first, which constantly increases 
so the process is just the reverse of what it should be in order to 
give the bean a fine flavor. 



312 



CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



313 




Chapter XXV 
OIL AND TAR STILL EQUIPMENT 

There are hundreds of different forms of oil stills. Some are 
of the tank type as shown in Fig. 296, others are of the boiler type, 
while others again are of the topping type where the elements of 
the still can quickly be removed when their operation is effected by 
carbon in the tubes of the still. 

Oil is an ideal fuel for this class of service for with it you can 
obtain the varying temperatures required. The more volatile oils 
are taken off first and the heat in the furnace of the still is grad- 
ually raised to the temperatures required for the different dis- 
tillations. 

In order to obtain the various by-products from tar, it is neces- 
sary to distill same. This is ordinarily done by means of a hori- 
zontal still as shown in Fig. 297. You will note that the fire cham- 
ber is provided with an arch in order to protect the bottom of the 
still from the excessive heat. The heat ports in this arch vary in 
proportion to the size of the still. This form of construction in 
the firebox is most essential, as it prevents the excessive heat from 
impinging upon the bottom of the shell. Only the radiated heat 
passing upwardly and around the still, gives the required tem- 
perature. 



314 



OIL AND TAR STILL EQUIPMENT 



315 




*.^,w.-p.y?>. 



Fig. 295. Oil still, (Burner end view.) 



316 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




i i 



OIL AND GAS STILL EQUIPMENT 



317 







Chapter XXVI 
INCINERATOR EQUIPMENT 




Fig. 300. Incinerator. 



I believe that some day not far in the future incinerators will 
have to be used in manufacturing plants and aboard vessels to 
destroy the garbage. In fact, residences will in time employ this 
method to destroy vegetable matter, one incinerator being erected 

318 



INCINERATOR EQUIPMENT 



319 



for a group of houses. This form is absolutely sanitary, as it pro- 
vides every means for the elimination of smoke. 




Fig. 301. Incinerator equipment. 



You will notice a burner is used to consume the charge, and if 
smoke occurs this is consumed by burner No. 2 in the secondary 
or upper chamber. 



Chapter XXVII 
GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 

In the melting, bending and annealing of glass oil, if properly 
installed, is a fuel which insures success. There are many types 
of glass-melting furnaces : regenerative, recuperative and the or- 
dinary tank type. The equipment of the latter is illustrated in 
Fig. 303. 

In regenerative glass-melting furnaces about 12 feet by 20 feet 
(or larger or smaller) we use two burners placed in the manner 
shown in Fig. 304. Each burner is of capacity adequate for the en- 
tire operation. Of course in this type of furnace only one burner 
is used at any time, and the other burner is placed in operation 
when the first burner is shut off and the reversing valve is ad- 
justed. 

Oil is an ideal fuel for glass melting as the sulphur content of 
the oil does not in any way effect the molten glass. 

In recuperative glass-melting furnaces (Fig 307) the burner is 
placed over the air opening, substantially as shown. The operating 
valves of the burner may be placed in any position convenient for 
the operator — near the burner or 50 feet from it. 

There are two ways of equipping a glass lehr. Formerly we 
placed a burner on each side as indicated in the view marked "Fig. 
A," but the modern way is to place the burner immediately under 
the arch so that the flame passing from the combustion chamber 
runs along the upper portion of the lehr. This direct-fired installa- 
tion is clearly shown in the lower view of Fig. 311. It is by far the 
most economical and modern method of equipment. 

When using Mexican oil in lehrs the ware is sometimes effected 
by the sulphur in the oil settling down upon the ware, thereby 
discoloring it, which must of course be washed off. This is avoided 
by using a muffle furnace such as shown in Fig. 312. There are of 
course a great number of other types and forms of muffle lehrs. 

There are numerous plate-glass industries that co-operate with 
architects in the bending of plate glass. Great care must be ex- 
ercised in the heating of this glass as the plates are charged into 

320 



GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



321 




Fig. 303. Old type glass melting furnace, practically obsolete 
to-day. Size in the bath, 14 feet, by 18 ft. 



322 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




SCCTIQN xr g-B 

Fig. 304. Regenerative glass melting furnace. 



GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



323 



this furnace when the furnace is cold, and the sheet steel form 
placed under the plate. The furnace is then operated very slowly 
as the heat must be very evenly distributed. When the plate has 
reached a certain temperature it gradually bends into the form 
provided for it and becomes of the radius required. 




et.e v/irion 



Fig. 305. Diagram showing the two burners and. piping — regenera- 
tive glass melting furnace shown in Fig. 304. 



Oil is an incomparable fuel for this class of work owing to the 
fact that the heat in this furnace is under perfect control. 

Figures 313, 314 and 315 show a coke-fired furnace changed to 
oil-fired. The difference in the length of operation between coke 
and oil as fuel is that it only requires about one-quarter as long 
when oil is used as while using coke. 



324 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



325 



































^.-.,.,^ 


.»„. 


"'" """'" "'"■ 








^T5^->ihr 




1 1 


4- 


.,.„..,.,.,... 


r^t..^ 














- 








^ 1 
1 
1 


i'"-*''- 


J^S* 










,^„^ 
























— 


zzrz:::. 


";.,::;:: 


,"•" " 


"" 








Fig. 307. Recuperative glass melting furnace. 



326 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




Fig. 308. Another glass furnace of the recuperative type. 



GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



327 




■3x/Zx/i'S/a/i 






Fig. 309. Equipment of a glass furnace of the recuperative type. 




Fig. 310. Lehrs, 80 feet long equipped with only one burner. 



828 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



329 




Fig. 312. Muffle Lehi 



330 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 




GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 



331 




Fig. 314. Plate glass bending furnace. Cross sectional view 
showing flue in center and the grates covered with fire-brick 
on either side. 



f^aiff Sfcaf*r//j^\ 










Fig. 315. Burner end view of plate glass bending furnace. 



Chapter XXVIII 
COMBUSTION ENGINEERING 

As oil is now used in nearly every large works there is a great 
need to-day for the intelligent installation and operation of oil- 
burners and oil systems. The demand is increasing daily for real 
combustion engineers who have had experience in the operation 
of boilers, furnaces, etc.; — for those who can effect a saving in 
fuel in the average plant representing three or four times the 
amount of their salary. There are a few competent combustion 
engineers in this country, but the demand for men trained in the 
art of properly burning oil far exceeds the supply. It takes years 
of training to become competent, for in this calling theory must 
give way to practice. The engineer's superior knowledge as to 
how best to obtain results commands the respect of the men in 
charge of the furnaces and boilers. 

There are many to-day who imagine that they are combustion 
engineers, but we find that these have had very little actual 
experience. For example, in large copper furnaces the charge 
is sometimes worth from $50,000 to $75,000, and of course ex- 
perimenting cannot be permitted. Though the furnace may be 
properly designed, the burner of adequate capacity and the oil 
system perfectly installed, if the apparatus is operated by a novice 
everything will be condemned and the charge oxidized and ruined 
— possibly a total loss. I have seen oil as a fuel condemned in 
hundreds of plants simply because the operator claimed he had 
had experience in burning oil, but his operation of the burners 
plainly proved he had only seen oil-fired furnaces in operation 
and that he had never operated them before. Again, too, I have 
often seen furnaces the design of which reflected upon the designer 
and caused oil to be rejected for years in that plant until finally 
one of the officials, seeing it burned successfully in another plant 
manufacturing the same product, compels his works to again use 
liquid fuel for he feels that his works can certainly use oil as suc- 
cessfully as competing firms. 

What we need is combustion engineers who can design furnaces 

332 



GLASS INDUSTRY EQUIPMENT 333 

which will be a credit to both the engineer and the company with 
which he is connected. They must be men experienced in the 
burning of liquid fuel and the designing of furnaces, for experi- 
ments are costly, and no manufacturer desires to construct fur- 
naces which may not prove efficient. If it is a heat-treating fur- 
nace for the heat-treatment of 20 tons of metal, the metallurgist 
will inform the designer as to the proportions of the sections of 
the charge, the length of time the metal should remain in the fur- 
nace and the temperature at which it should be heat-treated. If 
he cannot with this data before him calculate the quantity of liquid 
fuel and air required to bring the charge to a given temperature 
and maintain that temperature for the length of time required, 
he is a failure. He should have the data required for such calcu- 
lations so that in 998 furnaces out of every 1,000 he will be suc- 
cessful. If he cannot do this he is a very dangerous man in any 
plant or office. 

I know there are many designers who put six burners on one 
side and eight burners on the other side of a furnace, staggering 
their locations. Then, if this number of burners does not bring the 
furnace to temperature, they will put in some more burners. That 
is certainly not engineering; just merely guesswork and should 
not be permitted! By placing a large number of burners in a 
furnace it is impossible to control the temperature accurately. 
Some of the burners are operated at CO and others at CO,, which 
makes it very perplexing for the operator in his endeavor to main- 
tain an even distribution of heat in the furnace. The man who 
designs a combustion chamber of adequate proportions and then 
cannot chart off the radiation of heat in the furnace, cannot be 
considered a successful designer. This of course cannot be done 
if a large number of burners are used and their location staggered 
in the manner just mentioned. If we desire to sell our goods in 
foreign countries and tag them "Made in America," our product 
should be heat-treated properly in order to merit the name of our 
beloved country. 

A college-trained man has many advantages over the mechanic 
v/ho has not had the benefit of a college education, providing 
the college man after graduating uses his technical training as a 
foundation on which to place practical knowledge. This requires 
years of sacrifice and hard labor. He must begin at the very bot- 
tom, so to speak, and climb round by round to the top of the ladder. 



334 BURNING LIQUID FUEL 

When he has added practical knowledge to his technical education 
he can live a life worth while, and his services will always be in 
demand. If he is examining an oil pump which fails to operate 
he will then be capable of noting its defects, and will not have to 
depend upon the judgment of the stationary engineer or mechanic 
but upon his own knowledge based upon facts — not theory. 

From time to time men claiming to be engineers come into my 
office and state that, according to certain figures which they have 
compiled, when using good coal one should get an evaporation of 
16.3 pounds of water per pound of coal and using oil of 19.5 pounds 
of water per pound of oil. They do not specify the calorific value 
of the coal, which is of course very important. It might be Poca- 
hontas coal of the Virginias which has a calorific value of 15,391 
B.t.u. per pound, or it might be Illinois coal which has a calorific 
value of 10.500 B.t.u. per pound. I invariably inquire where they 
secure this data but have never been able to find out the name 
of any plant operating with such wonderful efficiency as they 
claim. When questioned as to their data, they invariably make the 
statement that figures do not lie; and yet every engineer knows 
that figures in the hands of a novice can be made to tell some 
terrible falsehoods. The safe man is the one who compiles his own 
figures, not using the exceptional cases, but the data secured from 
numerous tests. I always like to see a man who has genius enough 
to be daring, for that man is a leader among men if he has any 
real knowledge. I speak now of knowledge, not theory. I wish 
to emphasize this point, because these men are absolutely neces- 
sary if we are going to advance. 

It is unfortunate that our universities, colleges and trade schools 
do not train their students in the burning of liquid fuel, because 
this in my judgment is absolutely essential at the present time. 
There are very few manufacturers who do not burn oil in some 
portion of their works. Oil is the fuel of the twentieth century. 
Imagine the thoughts of a graduate who has just received his 
diploma, and entered the employ of a plant where oil is used as 
fuel either in its power plant, heat-treating department, or some 
other department. I will give you a concrete example of such an 
occurrence. 

About 12 years ago a young man after graduating from a tech- 
nical school went to work in a large manufacturing plant. Know- 
ing the need of obtaining a practical knowledge of the method of 



COMBUSTION ENGINEERING 335 

manufacturing their various products, he began in the smith 
shop as a smith's helper, and went through all the various depart- 
ments until he became thoroughly acquainted with the work in 
each department. At that time the fuels used in this plant were 
producer gas and coal. The president of the company watched 
this young man for three years and then determined to make him 
shop superintendent. This position he filled admirably for a year. 
Then he approached the president and stated he desired to install 
oil as fuel in the plant because he wished to modernize it. The 
president assented to his wishes, and oil was installed. This re- 
sulted in increasing the output of the plant approximately 100 
per cent., reduced the cost of fuel, and vastly improved the quality 
of their product. He was later given an interest in the business, 
and made general superintendent of the entire plant, embracing 
all the different departments. 

Shortly after that the new general superintendent's brother, 
who had just been graduated from the same technical school as he, 
was offered a position in the plant by his brother. The first job 
he got was to find out the quantity of oil required to forge and 
heat-treat a certain class of goods made in the works. The brother 
immediately went out to the shop and for the first time saw oil 
burned in furnaces. He returned to his brother and said : "Brother, 
I am sorry to have to fall down on the first job you have given me, 
but I myself must first learn the art of properly burning oil before 
I can make a correct report to you." The general superintendent 
clasped his brother's hands and stated : "That is just what I hoped 
you would say. I knew that you knew nothing about burning oil, 
and put you to the test to find out just what you would say. Had 
you made a bluff at it we would both have been disappointed, but 
since it is your desire to first learn how to burn oil, it will be a 
pleasure for me to aid you in every way possible." Suffice it to 
say that the young man for several years held a responsible posi- 
tion with this firm. Afterwards he became the works manager of 
a new plant. 

I know of but one institution of learning in the world that is 
making an effort to instruct its students in the science of burning 
liquid fuel. Their new building has just been erected and their oil 
tanks, furnaces, etc., are being installed. I refer to the Lincoln 
Memorial University, Harrogate, Tenn. (near Cumberland Gap). 
The accompanying cut shows the plan lay-out of a school for the 



336 



BURNING LIQUID FUEL 



instruction of students in the burning of liquid fuel for melting, 
forging and heat-treatment of metals. 

It is always advisable to keep all patterns in a fire-proof building 
made of stone, brick or concrete. This building in the diagram is 
marked "No. 1" and is, as you will note, located some distance from 
the other building, which also is a precaution against fire. No. 2 
is the boiler room, while Nos. 3 and 4 indicate the brass and grey 
iron foundries. No. 5 is the stock room for the forge drop and 
No. 6 is the mason's room wherein all furnaces are relined or re- 
paired. No. 7 is the forge shop and the heat-treating room. No. 8, 
the machine shop ; No. 9, the testing room, and No. 10 is the exhi- 
bition room. 



'/A==m=VA 








^^ 



w 



^ /(VvMi/zV* /Vet \ ' U ^ 



apsr 



forfoi/vG Af/z>//£»T-r/!£r//^s 







Fig. 316. Plan layout of building at Lincoln Memorial University, 
showing boiler room, foundries, machine shop, etc. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

A 

Air, Auxiliary 35, 238 

Furnaces 195 

Quantity required for combustion 34 

Eegulation 124 

Analysis, Air Furnace Bottom Sand 71 

Bagasse 143 

Beaumont (Texas) Crude Oil .. 25 
Brick for Crucible Furnaces .... 69 

California Crude Oil 25 

Coal 88 

Fuel or Residium Oil 25 

Mexican Topped Crude Oil ( Tam- 

pico Fields) 25 

Tar, Coal 26, 27 

Dominion Coal 26 

London 26 

Oil 26 

Angle Heating Furnaces 247 

Annealing and Tempering Furnaces 

Automobile Spring 186 

Burners Required 173, 193 

Car type 177, 179 

Cast Iron Pipe 186 

Coal or Coke, fired changed to oil 186 
Combustions Chambers for .... 191 

Declined Hearth 186 

Direct-fired 178, 237, 244 

Direct versus Indirect-fired .171, 173 
High Speed Steel 

173, 178, 237, 242, 244 

Hot Air 186 

Indirect-fired 171, 175 

Malleable Iron Castings 201 

Muffle 244, 270 

Overhead-fired 178 

Pipe, large 263 

Pit 186 

Portable 245, 251,258 

Preheating Chamber, with 178 

Rotary, Cold Pinched Nuts, etc.. 184 

Rotary Table 183 

Semi-Muffle 186, 223 

Semi-Pit 186 

Shaft 179 

Sheet Copper and Brass 210 

Shell 179, 181 

Asphalt Melters and Mixers 296 

Axe Head Tempering Furnace .... 241 

337 



PAGE 

B 

Bagasse, Calorific value 143 

Oil required per ton 143 

Bar Rivet — Making Furnaces 

Billet Heating Furnaces 

Coal to Oil-fired 230 

Concrete Base 230 

Continuous 227 

Copper 269 

Modern 229, 237 

Oil versus Coal 225 

Portable 232 

With Waste Heat Boiler . . .233, 238 
Boilers: Apparatus for Firing Up 

and Testing 249 

Babcock & Wilcox (Altman- 

Taylor) 57, 101, 142 

Back-fired 93, 145 

Blast Furnace Gas and Oil as 

Fuel 126 

Burners 33, 85, 87, 134 

Coal and Oil or Tar Combination 

Equipment 85 

(See Liquid Fuel Injecting Ap- 
paratus) 

Differential Draft Gage 121 

Economic 89 

Electric Light Plants 86 

Ferry Boats Tugs etc 95 

Firing up when Boiler is Cold.89, 108 

Fitzgibbons 114 

Heine 94 

Horse Power 126 

Hot Water or Low Pressure 

Steam 129 

Lancashire 97, 98 

Line of Blaze 94 

Liquid Fuel Injecting Apparatus 114 
Locomotive Type — Stationary 

Service 88 

Manner of Lighting Burner .... 89 

Manning " 113 

Multitubular 146, 147, 148 

Oil versus Coal 27, 85, 87 

Peak Loads 85 

Return Tubular 108, 136 

Scotch Marine : Drv-back .... 100 

Wet-back ' 99 

Settings : Grate versus Deep , , , 94 



338 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Boilers : 

Low versus High 104 

Stirling 94 

Stokers and Oil Burners 87 

Tangential Flame Equipment . 108 

Tests 121 

Tests by U. S. Navy Liquid Fuel 

Board 84 

Traction Power Plants 85 

Twin Fire-box 96 

Vertical : Air Carbureting 

Burner 134 

Oil 108, 113 

Oil and Gas 109 

Waste Heat 233, 238 

Wickes 119, 120 

Bolt Heading 230, 236 

Brass Melting 201 

Brazing 258, 261 

Bread Ovens 307 

Brick: Crucible Steel Furnaces, 

Analysis 69 

How to Lay in Furnaces 70 

Kilns 284 

Need of in Portable Furnaces . . 259 

Relining Furnaces 222, 230 

Special Shapes 70 

British Tliermal Unit: Defined 25, 29 

In various fuels 28 

Brutus, Welding Rudder on 254 

Bull Ladle Heating 166 

Burners: Air Carbureting 134 

Gas — Natural or Commercial . . 38 
High Pressure (Steam or Com- 
pressed Air) 36 

Liquid Fuel Injecting Apparatus 
• — See Heading 

Locomotive 72 

Low Pressure or Volume Air . . 38 
Manner of Lighting — Boiler .... 89 
Manner of Ligliting — Furnace . . 204 

Mechanical 37 

Oil or Tar 33 

Open Hearth 153, 158 

Open Hearth, Water-cooled. 152, 163 

Pilot 80, 111 

Piping with Volume Air Nozzle. 292 

Pulverized Coal 38 

Swivel Joint... 87, 135, 144, 148, 152 
By-product Coke Oven Gas 27 

c 

Car-tvpe Annealers 177. 179 

Carbon Steel 171, 173 

Case-Hardening Furnaces 173, 186 

Cement Kilns 291 

Centrifugal Air Compressor ... .37, 44 



PAGE 

Char Kiln 150 

Chemical Furnaces and Stills 272 

CO-^ Recorder 125 

Coal : Analysis 88 

Graphitic 28 

In Combination with Oil 85 

(See Liquid Fuel Injecting Ap- 
paratus ) 

Pulverized 28, 38 

Tar 26 

Cocoa Bean Roasting 313 

Coke Oven Benches 138 

Coke Oven Gas 27 

Combustion 29 

Combustion Chambers 225 

Combustion Engineers 332 

Comparison — Various Kinds of 

Fuels 27 

Compressed Air Oil System 42 

Compressed Air versus Steam 36 

Continuous Billet Heating 227 

Copper: Annealing (Sheet Copper 

or Brass) 210 

Continuous Billet Heating 269 

Matting 267 

Refining . 264 

Core Ovens 211 

Crucible Brass Melting 201 

Steel Melting 153 

Steel Furnace Brick 69 

Cupolas, To Light 261 

Cupolas versus Furnaces 200 

D 

Deflection Blast 238 

Desulphurizing Iron Ore 305 

Die Hardening 244 

Direct-fired Annealing Furnaces : 

High Speed Steel 173 

Shaft Annealing 179 

Shell (155 MM.) 183 

Draft Gage 121 

Drop Forging 227, 236 

Dryers 295, 300 

Duplex Burner Equipments. ... 80, 112 

E 

Electric Locomotive (First) 7 

Enameling 270 

F 

Ferrite 171 

Fireman's Regulating Quadrant.... 74 
Firing up and Testing Boilers. .249, 258 

Flange Welding — Pipe 263 

Flanging Furnace 247, 251,258 



INDEX 



339 



PAGE 

Flue Welding Furnace 261 

Foot Valve and Strainer 

Forge, Oil 234 

Forge Shop — Modern 221 

Forging Furnaces: Coal to Oil-fired 235 

Concrete Foundations 230 

Flame Required for Welding . . . 235 

Portable 221 245 

Small 242, 244 

Frame Welding (Locomotive) 255 

French Kitchen Ranges 311 

G 

Gas Burner (Natural or Commer- 
cial) 38 

Gas and Oil — Boiler Service 109 

Glass Melting, Bending and An- 
nealing 321 

Globe Valve versus Oil Regulating 

Cock 46 

Graphitic Coal 28 

Gravity Feed Oil Systems, 

40, 110, 122, 129 

Grey Iron Castings: Annealing .. 186 

Melting 200 

H 

Hand Torches 259 

Hardening Dies 244 

Heat 216 

Heat Deflectors 230, 238 

Heat Ports: Indirect-fired Fur- 
naces 175, 223 

Mould Drying Ovens 160 

Heating Crown Sheets 251, 258 

Heat-treating Furnaces: Coal ver- 
sus Oil 27 

(See Annealing Furnaces) 

High Pressure Burners 36 

High Speed Steel Furnaces, 

173, 174, 235, 242, 244 

Horse Power, Boiler 126 

Hot Air Furnace 133, 186 

Hydrometer Thermometer 32 

I 

Incinerator 319 

Indirect-fired Furnaces (See An- 
nealing) : 

Burners Required 173 

Cartype . 179 

Shell Annealing 179 

Twin-type 188 

Ingot Heating 225 

Inverted Arches (Locomotive).... 73 

Iron Ore Desulphurizing Furnace . . 305 



Japanning Oven 270 

K 

Kilns : Brick 284 

Cement 292 

Char 150 

Lime . 287 

Ore Roaster 296 

Pottery 286 



Laboratory Furnace 259 

Ladle Heating 152, 165, 215, 258 

Lead Bath Furnace 183 

Lehrs 327, 328 

L'envoi 340 

Lighting cupolas 261 

Lime Kiln 287 

Lincoln Memorial University 336 

Line of Blaze — Boiler . s 94 

Liquid Fuel Injecting Apparatus. . . 114 

Air Furnaces 200 

Bagasse, In Combination with.. 149 

Return Tubular Boiler 136 

Stirling Boiler 118 

Waste Heat Boiler, 0. H. Fur- 
nace 117 

Water Gas Tar, With 129 

Wickes Boiler 119, 120 

Locomotive : Boiler — Stationary 

Service 88 

Burner 72 

Damper Regulation 74 

Duplex Oil System 80 

Fireman's Regulating Quadrant. 74 

First Electric 7 

First Equipped by Author 9 

Frame Welding 255 

Inverted Arches 73 

Oil Regulating Cock 75 

Oil Superheater 76 

Oil Tank 76 

Oil versus Coal 26 

Pilot Burner 80 

Testing Apparatus 249 

Tonnage — Coal versus Oil 72 

Low Pressure Burner 38 

M 

Magnesite Brick 70 

Malleable Iron Furnaces: Anneal- 
ing 201 

First, where located 199 

Modern Melting 197 

Type of Burner Required 200 



340 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Martinsite 172 

Mechanical Burners 37 

Metallurgist 216, 223 

Melting Furnaces 201 

Melting — Laboratory Tests 259 

Meter, Steam Flow 121 

Millet Ovens 215 

Molasses Refuse 151 

Mould Drying 158, 211 

Moulds, Skin-drying 261 

Mounted Burner — Boilers 85 

Muffle Furnaces, annealing, baking 

enamel, etc 244, 269 

Muffle Lehr 329 

Multiple Ladle Heating Furnace, 

166, 167 

o 

Oil : Analysis See Headmg 

Atomization 33 

Automatic Regulation 36 

Base 24 

Bath Furnace 184 

Cliemical Furnace Heating, For. 281 

Discovery 18 

Fluctuation, Cause of 42, 50, 138 

Foot Valve and Strainer 55 

Forge 234 

Geological Formation 16 

Gusher — Spindletop 17 

Heaters 56, 76 

Heating — Temperature Required, 

42, 219 

Origin 15 

Piping, Fittings, etc 40 

Pressure Reducing Valve... 247, 254 

Pressure Relief Valve 55 

Production: U. S. annual by 

states 19, 20 

U. S. annual by fields 21, 22 

World 23, 24 

Pulsometer 55 

Pump Regulator 50, 54 

Pumps 42 

Quantity Required in Various 

Services 26, 27 

Regulating Cocks 46, 75 

Sand 16 

Stand-pipe or Column 42 

Still 315, 316 

Study of, at Lincoln Memorial 

University 336 

Superheater 76 

Supply Systems See Heading 

Tanks See Heading 

Testing Apparatus 31 

Use of in Navy 217 

Versus Coal in Various Services, 

26, 27 



PAGE 

Oil: 

Versus Wood 27 

Open Hearth: Burner with Swivel 

Joints 152, 153, 158 

Burner, water-cooled 163 

Furnace, Gas to Oil-fired 152 

Furnace, Modern 162 

Ore Roasters 295, 301, 304 

Overhead Oil-fired Furnace 178 



Pearlite 171 

Peterson Bread Oven 309, 310 

Pipe: Annealing, large Cast Iron. 186 

Bending 251, 259, 261, 263 

Brazing 258, 261 

Flange Welding 263 

Joints, Paste to Prevent Leaking 40 

Plant Supt ; The successful 224 

Plate Glass Bending 330, 331 

Plate Heating Furnaces 243 

Portable Furnaces 245, 251, 256, 258, 259 

Pottery Kiln 285 

Power Plants : Coal versus Oil ... . 27 

Peak Loads 85 

Preheating Air 

Preheating Chamber 178 

Pressure Reducing Valve 247, 254 

Pressure Relief Valve 55 

Pulsometer 55 

Pulverized Coal : Burner 38 

Method of Burning in Combina- 
tion with Oil 28 

Pumps 42, 138 

Pumping Systems See Systems 

Pyrometers 67 



Quadrant, Fireman's Regulating 



74 



Recuperative Furnaces — Glass 322, 325 

Reel Oven — Cracker 309 

Refuse — Incinerator 319 

Regenerative Furnaces : Glass .... 323 

Open Hearth 152 

Regulating Cocks 46, 75 

Return Tubular Boiler: Oil exclus- 
ively as fuel 108 

Oil in Combination with Coal or 

Breeze 86, 136 

Rivet Furnaces : Heating, Stationary 244 

Heating, Portable 245 

Making 244 

Roasters: Cocoa Bean 313 

Ore 296, 305, 306 

Rosin Still Equipment 276 



INDEX 



341 



PAGE 
Rotary Equipments: Bread Oven . 308 

Dryers 295, 300, 302 

Furnaces 183, 184 

Kilns, Cement 294 

Kilns, Lime 288 

Reel Oven, Crackers 307 

Ore Roasters 304 

Rudder Welding 254 

s 

Sand Dryer 300 

Scotch Marine Boilers 99, 100 

Scrap Brass Melting Furnace . . . 206 

Scrap Iron Welding 11, 238 

Semi-feet, Bung Arch Annealing 

Furnace 186 

Separator, Sharpies 137 

Shaft Furnaces: Annealing (car 

type) 179 

Heating 237 

Shell Annealing Furnaces: Direct 

fired 180 

Indirect fired 175 

Shingling Furnace 235 

Soaking Pits 164 

Solution Bath Furnace 184 

Steam Flow Meter 121 

Steam versus Compressed Air .... 36 

Steel, Drawing 186 

Steel Foundry Castings, Annealing. 186 

Steel Heat Treatment 171 

Stills : Chemical 273 

Oil, heated 281 

Oil and Tar 315 

Stokers and Oil Equipment 87 

Sugar-Calorific Value . ., 143 

Sulphur, To eliminate Effects 

of 199, 219, 223 

Sulphuric Acid Furnace 280 

Superheater (Oil) 46, 76 

Systems, Oil Supply: Boiler 

Testing 122, 123 

Complete Circulating 223 

Compressed Air 42 

Gas Works 40, 138 

Gravity Feed 40, 110, 129, 138 

House Heating 42, 129 

Imperfect 50, 221 

Light Oil 40, 44 

Marine Service 44 

Pressure Recommended on .... 221 

Proper, Modern , 50, 56 

Temporary 56, 63 

Thermometers on 39 

Valveless 42 



Tangential Flame Equipment: 

Boilers 108 

Crucibles 210 

Furnaces 184 

Stills 274, 275 

Tanks : Care of 67 

Capacity, To find 67 

Concrete 66 

Fire Prevention 40 

Foot Valve and Strainer 55 

Heating of 39, 67 

Locomotive 76 

Size Recommended for Oil Storage 42 

Steel 56 

Ventage 67 

Tar : Analysis 26 

Gravity Feed 40, 86, 138 

Heating of 44, 46, 138 

Stills 317 

To Separate from Water 135 

Valveless System 42 

Testing Instruments 31 

Thermometers 39 

Tire-heating 261 

Tool Dressing 235, 242, 244 

Tubal Cain 216 

Tug Boats: Increase in Service 26, 225 
Boiler Equipment 95 



Valveless Oil System 42 

Vanstoning 263 

Vaporizing Point: Retort for De- 

ermining 30 

Various Fuels 25, 219 

Ventage: Oil Systems 55, 138 

Furnaces 157, 223, 249 

Vertical Boilers 108, 109, 113, 134 

Volume Air : Burner 38 

To Aid Combustion 35, 291 

w 

Waste Heat Boilers 233, 238 

Water Gas Tar: Chemical Action.. 138 

To Separate from Water 135 

Uses 27, 29 

Water-Smoke, To Remove 284 

Welding : Flame Required for .... 235 

Flues 261 

Furnaces 225 

Locomotive Frame 255 

Pipe 263 

Rudder 254 

Scrap Iron 238 



